© The Divine Life Trust Society
ISBN
81-7052-047-9
Published By
THE DIVINE LIFE SOCIETY
P.O. Shivanandanagar—249 192
Distt. Tehri-Garhwal, Uttaranchal,
Himalayas, India.
DEDICATED
TO
ALL THOSE
WHO LOVE
HINDUISM
AND ITS
SUBLIME PHILOSOPHY
AND PRACTISE
ITS TEACHINGS
CONTENTS
PUBLISHERS’
NOTE
Hinduism is veritably the fountain-head of all religions. It contains
within itself the seeds of all religions. It includes all religions
and excludes none.
It is but natural that people all over the world should show increasing
interest in a religion with so universal an appeal.
“ALL ABOUT HINDUISM” is intended to meet the needs of those
who want to be introduced to the various facets of the crystal that
is Hinduism. The book, which was first published in 1947, has now been
rearranged in a more convenient form, with useful additions here and
there, and is now released in its fifth edition.
We do hope that all serious students of Hindu Religion and Philosophy
will find the book useful and interesting.
—THE DIVINE LIFE SOCIETY.
THE
UNIVERSAL PRAYERS
I
O Adorable Lord of Mercy and Love!
Salutations and prostrations unto Thee.
Thou art Existence-Consciousness-Bliss Absolute.
Thou art Omnipresent, Omnipotent and Omniscient.
Thou art the Indweller of all beings.
Grant us an understanding heart,
Equal vision, balanced mind,
Faith, devotion and wisdom.
Grant us inner spiritual strength
To resist temptations and to control the mind.
Free us from egoism, lust, greed, hatred, anger and jealousy.
Fill our hearts with divine virtues.
Let us behold Thee in till these names and forms.
Let us serve Thee in all these names and forms.
Let us ever remember Thee.
Let us ever sing Thy glories.
Let Thy Name be ever on our lips.
Let us abide in Thee for ever and ever.
—Swami Sivananda
II
O Thou Invisible One! O Adorable One! O Supreme! Thou permeatest and
penetratest this vast universe from the unlimited space down to the
tiny blade of grass at my feet. Thou art the basis for all these names
and forms. Thou art the apple of my eye, the Prema of my heart, the
very Life of my life, the very Soul of my soul, the Illuminator of my
intellect and senses, the sweet Anahata music of my heart, and the substance
of my physical, mental and causal frames.
I recognise Thee alone as the mighty Ruler of this universe and the
Inner Controller (Antaryamin) of my three bodies. I prostrate again
and again before Thee, my Lord! Thou art my sole refuge! I trust Thee
alone, O ocean of mercy and love! Elevate, enlighten, guide and protect
me. Remove obstacles from my spiritual path. Lift the veil of ignorance.
O Thou Jagadguru! I cannot bear any longer, even for a second, the miseries
of this body, this life and this Samsara. Give Darsana quickly. O Prabho!
I am pining. I am melting. Listen, listen to my fervent, Antarika prayer.
Do not be cruel, my Lord. Thou art Dinabandhu. Thou art Adhama-Uddharaka.
Thou art Patita-Pavana (Purifier of the fallen).
Om Santi Santi Santih!
III
Sarvesham Svasti Bhavatu
Sarvesham Santir Bhavatu
Sarvesham Purnam Bhavatu
Sarvesham Mangalam Bhavatu
May auspiciousness be unto all;
May peace be unto all;
May fullness be unto all;
May prosperity be unto all.
Sarve Bhavantu Sukhinah
Sarve Santu Niramayah
Sarve Bhadrani Pasyantu
Ma Kaschid-Duhkha-Bhag-Bhavet
May all be happy;
May all be free from disabilities;
May all behold what is auspicious;
May none suffer from sorrow.
Asato Ma Sadgamaya
Tamaso Ma Jyotir-Gamaya
Mrityor-Ma Amritam Gamaya
Om Santi Santi Santih!
Lead me from the unreal to the Real;
Lead me from darkness to the Light;
Lead me from mortality to Immortality.
Om Peace! Peace! Peace!
CHAPTER 1
Silent adorations to Satchidananda Para-Brahman, Who is the
silent Witness of all minds, Who is the Indweller in all beings, Who
has projected this world for His own Lila or sport, Who is the
support for this world, body and mind and all movements, and Who is
the foundation for all societies and their activities.
The word Religion comes from the Latin word religio which consists
of two words, viz., re (back) and ligare (to bring or
bind). That which binds the soul back to God is religion. Religion shows
the way for the attainment of God-realisation.
Religion satisfies the deep inward craving in man who is not always
content with leading merely an animal existence and wants spiritual
consolation, solace and peace. Man cannot live by bread alone. A time
comes in the life of many of us when mere worldly prosperity does not
satisfy us and we hanker after something more. In the case of many more,
trials and tribulations of life turn their attention to spiritual solace.
A Revealed Religion
Hinduism is the religion of the Hindus, a name given to the Universal
Religion which hailed supreme in India. It is the oldest of all living
religions. This is not founded by any prophet. Buddhism, Christianity
and Mohammedanism owe their origin to the prophets. Their dates are
fixed. But no such date can be fixed for Hinduism. Hinduism is not born
of the teachings of particular prophets. It is not based on a set of
dogmas preached by a particular set of teachers. It is free from religious
fanaticism.
Hinduism is also known by the names Sanatana-Dharma and Vaidika-Dharma.
Sanatana-Dharma means eternal religion. Hinduism is as old as the world
itself. Hinduism is the mother of all religions. Hindu scriptures are
the oldest in the world, Sanatana-Dharma is so called, not only because
it is eternal, but also because it is protected by God and because it
can make us eternal.
Vaidika-Dharma means the religion of the Vedas. The Vedas are the foundational
scriptures of Hinduism. The ancient Rishis and sages of India have expressed
their intuitive spiritual experiences (Aparoksha-Anubhuti) in
the Upanishads. These experiences are direct and infallible. Hinduism
regards the spiritual experiences of the Rishis of yore as its authority.
The priceless truths that have been discovered by the Hindu Rishis and
sages through millennia constitute the glory of Hinduism. Therefore,
Hinduism is a revealed religion.
A Religion Of Freedom
Hinduism, unlike other religions, does not dogmatically assert that
the final emancipation is possible only through its means and not through
any other. It is only a means to an end and all means which will ultimately
lead to the end are equally approved.
Hinduism allows absolute freedom to the rational mind of man. Hinduism
never demands any undue restraint upon the freedom of human reason,
the freedom of thought, feeling and will of man. It allows the widest
freedom in matters of faith and worship. Hinduism is a religion of freedom.
It allows absolute freedom to the human reason and heart with regard
to questions such as nature of God, soul, creation, form of worship
and the goal of life. Hinduism does not lie in the acceptance of any
particular doctrine, nor in the observance of some particular rituals
or form of worship. It does not force anybody to accept particular dogmas
or forms of worship. It allows everybody to reflect, investigate, enquire
and cogitate. Hence, all sorts of religious faiths, various forms of
worship or Sadhana, and diverse kinds of rituals and customs, have found
their honourable places side by side within Hinduism and are cultured
and developed in harmonious relationship with one another.
Hinduism does not condemn those who deny God as the creator and ruler
of the world, who do not accept the existence of an eternal soul and
the state of Moksha or state of liberation. Hinduism does not render
the upholders of such views unfit to be recognised as pious and honourable
members of the Hindu religious society.
The religious hospitality of Hinduism is proverbial. Hinduism is extremely
catholic and liberal. This is the fundamental feature of Hinduism. Hinduism
pays respects to all religions. It does not revile any other religion.
It accepts and honours truth—wherever it may come from and whatever
garb it may put on.
There are considerable numbers of the followers of other religions
in India. And yet, the Hindus live in perfect harmony, peace and friendship
with all of them. Their tolerance and fellow-feeling towards the followers
of other religions is remarkable.
Despite all the differences of metaphysical doctrines, modes of religious
discipline and forms of ritualistic practices and social habits prevalent
in the Hindu society, there is an essential uniformity in the conception
of religion and in the outlook on life and the world, among all sections
of Hindus.
Vedanta, or the philosophy of the Upanishads, is lofty, sublime and
unique. The Western philosophers have paid their tribute to the ancient
seers of the Upanishads. They have been amazed at the lofty heights
scaled by them. Schopenhauer studied the Upanishads and meditated on
the thoughts of the Upanishads just before going to bed. He said: “The
Upanishads are the solace of my life and they will be solace to me after
my death also.”
The Raja-Yoga system of Hinduism is also splendid and unique. The lessons
are immensely practical and highly instructive. No system of physical
exercise on the surface of the earth can compete with Hatha-Yoga. Kundalini-Yoga
is wonderful. Hence the Americans and Europeans are in search of Hindu
Sannyasins and Yogins. They visit the Himalayas frequently in quest
of Yoga teachers. Some are living under Hindu Yogins as disciples and
are practising Yoga. Many Europeans and Americans are even now Hindus
by faith and practice, though they are born Christians. They practise
Raja-Yoga and Vedanta.
Hinduism provides spiritual food and Yoga Sadhana for all sorts of
people to suit their temperaments, capacities, tastes, stages of spiritual
development and conditions of life. It prescribes Yoga Sadhana even
for a scavenger or a cobbler to attain God-realisation, while doing
his ordinary avocation in the world. Hindu Yoga and Vedanta teachers
lay great stress on self-restraint, Tapas, renunciation and practical
Sadhana which is best calculated to control the mind and the senses
and unfold the divinity or attain Self-realisation. Hinduism is not
a religion of mere theories. It is eminently practical. In no religion
you will find such a variety of practical Yoga practised and such sublime
unique philosophy expounded. That is the reason why India is the only
glorious land of sages, Rishis, Yogins and saints.
Religion is practical aspect of philosophy. Philosophy is rational
aspect of religion. The philosophy of Hinduism is not arm-chair philosophy.
It is not meant for intellectual curiosity and vain discussion. Hindu
philosophy is a way of life. The philosopher of Hinduism seriously reflects
after hearing the Srutis, does Atma-Vichara, constantly meditates, and
then attains Self-realisation or Atma-Sakshatkara. Moksha is his goal.
He attempts to attain Jivanmukti now and here.
Religion is spiritualisation of human life for a Hindu. Religious culture
is really the culture of freedom for him. Religion governs all the departments
of Hindu life. He must realise the freedom of the soul in every department
of life. Religion affords the greatest scope for him for the culture
of true freedom. Religion is the only way to him for the realisation
of perfect freedom in life.
It is in India alone that every man knows something of philosophy.
The cowherd who tends the cattle, the peasant who ploughs the fields,
the boat-man who pulls at his oar, sing songs replete with philosophical
truths. Even the barber repeats OM NAMAH SIVAYA, SIVOHAM before he takes
up the razor. The Paramahamsa Sannyasins, the itinerant monks of Hinduism,
have disseminated the highest of Vedanta from door to door. In exchange
for a handful of rice, they have distributed from door to door, through
religious songs, the priceless gems of Hindu religion and philosophy.
In a meeting of the Sanatana Dharma Sabha, Lokamanya Tilak said: “A
Hindu is he who believes that the Vedas contain self-evident and axiomatic
truths.”
The Hindu Maha Sabha has given another definition: “A Hindu is
one who believes in a religion which has originated in India.”
“Those who burn the dead are Hindus.” This is another definition
given by some.
“He who protects the cows and the Brahmins is a Hindu.” This
is another definition given by some.
Some define: “A Hindu is one who regards India as his motherland
and the most sacred spot on earth.”
Some others define: “He who calls and considers himself a Hindu
is a Hindu.”
Some define: “He who accepts the Vedas, the Smritis, the Puranas
and the Tantras as the basis of religion and of the rule of conduct,
and believes in one Supreme God (Brahman), in the Law of Karma or retributive
justice, and in reincarnation (Punarjanma), is a Hindu.”
“He who follows the Vedic or Sanatana-Dharma is a Hindu.”
This is the definition by some.
“He who is a follower of the Vedanta is a Hindu.” This is
another definition given by some others.
“He who has perfect faith in the Law of Karma, the law of reincarnation
Avatara, ancestor worship, Varnashrama Dharma, Vedas and
existence of God, he who practises the instructions given in the Vedas
with faith and earnestness, he who does Sandhya, Sraaddha, Pitri-Tarpana
and the Pancha-Maha-Yajnas, he who follows the Varnashrama
Dharmas, he who worships the Avataras and studies the Vedas, is a Hindu.”
This is the definition given by some highly cultured men. This is the
only correct and complete definition.
That part of the great Aryan race which migrated from Central Asia,
through the mountain passes into India, settled first in the districts
near the river Sindhu, now called the Indus, on the other side of the
river. The Persians pronounced the word Sindhu as Hindu, and named their
Aryan brethren Hindus. Hindu is only a corrupt form of Sindhu.
The Hindu Aryans spread themselves over the plains of the Ganga. Then
the Persians gave the name Hindusthan, or abode of the Hindus, to the
whole of those districts between Punjab and Benaras.(Latest historical
researches have now proved that the Aryans did not come from outside
India, but were the original inhabitants of India.)
The classical name for India which is used in Sanskrit literature is
Bharata-Varsha or Bharata-Khanda, after the name of Bharata
who ruled over a large extent of territory in days of yore. Manu’s
name for the whole central region between the Himalayas and the Vindhya
mountains is Aryavarta, Abode of the Aryans. Another name for
the whole of India is Jambu-Dvipa. The Greeks gave the name Indu
to the whole of this country. It was on account of this India became
popular as the name of this country throughout Europe.
Hindu is not a mere name. This name Hindu is not only
of geographical, but also of national and racial importance. The whole
history of our nation from the very beginning is bound up with it. All
our ideas and ideals are so intimately connected with it that it is
difficult to give a simple definition of it. Poets, prophets and Avataras
came to sing the praises and glory of this name. Rishis, sages and saints
took their birth to compile the Sastras and Darsanas for
this nation. Heroes and warriors have fought for its honour and laid
down their very lives for it. Piety, nobility, generosity, philosophy,
religious bent of mind, Yoga, religious tolerance, wisdom, devotion,
renunciation, Self-realisation. Ahimsa, Satya and purity are associated
with the name ‘Hindu’.
India is the sacred land which has given birth to countless sages,
Rishis, Yogins, saints and prophets. India is the land that has produced
many Acharyas or spiritual preceptors like Sri Sankara and Sri Ramanuja;
many saints like Kabir, Ramdas, Tukaram and Gauranga Mahaprabhu; many
Yogins like Jnana Dev, Dattatreya and Sadasiva Brahman; and many prophets
like Buddha and Nanak. Buddha is our flesh and blood.
India is proud of Guru Govind Singh and Sivaji. India is proud of king
Bhoja and Vikramaditya. India is proud of Sankara and Kabir. India is
proud of Valmiki and Kalidasa. Krishna, Rama and all Avataras were born
in India. How sacred is India! How sublime is India! The dust of Brindavan
and Ayodhya, the land trodden by the sacred feet of Krishna and Rama,
still purifies the heart of countless people. Even Jesus, during the
missing period of His life, lived in Kashmir and learnt Yoga from the
Indian Yogins. Glory to Mother India!
India is a spiritual country. India never conquered territories or
annexed dominions. Military conquest is not her ambition. She wants
her children to have Atma-Svarajya or Absolute Independence.
She does not call upon them to rule over others. She wants them to have
conquest over internal and external nature. She wants them to possess
brilliant divine virtues, moral stamina and inner spiritual strength
born of wisdom of the soul. Ahimsa is her weapon to have the spiritual
conquest and the conquest of the minds of others.
People of India have Self-realisation as their goal. They do not, generally,
bestow too much attention on material prosperity and advancement. They
want Yoga or communion with the Supreme Being. They practise Ahimsa,
Satya and Brahmacharya. They wish to enjoy the eternal bliss of the
Absolute. They are always ready to renounce worldly possessions in order
to possess or realise the inner Atman or Brahman. They will sacrifice
anything and everything in order to attain the immortal Atman. They
are always spiritual-minded.
India is the sacred land with several holy rivers and powerful spiritual
vibrations. The hoary Himalayas attract the people of the whole world.
It is a land peculiarly suitable for divine contemplation and Yogic
practices. Every country has its own special attractive features. India
is the land of Yogins and sages. This is the special attractive feature
of India. This is the reason why people from America, England and all
parts of the world come to India for the practice of Yoga.
India is the most tolerant country in the world. She has a very expansive
heart. She includes all nations in the embrace of her love.
The Western nations are the descendents of the original Hindus or Aryans.
They might have forgotten their old connections with the Aryans and
Hindu culture. They might have forgotten all about their ancestors.
But this cannot be effaced from the annals of history. Mother India,
the repository of Hindu culture, cannot forget her children beyond the
seas. They are always dear to her.
Hindu culture and Hindu civilisation were at their zenith in the days
of yore. Greeks and Romans imitated the Hindus and absorbed Hindu thoughts.
Even now Hindu culture and Hindu civilisation stand foremost in the
world. No religion has produced so many great saints, sages, Yogins,
Rishis, Maharshis, prophets, Acharyas, benefactors, heroes, poets, statesmen
and kings as Hinduism. Each and every province of the country has produced
intellectual giants, poets and saints. Even now India abounds in Rishis,
philosophers, saints and high intellectuals. Even now she abounds in
sages and great souls.
The Hindus had to undergo severe hardships and tortures. They had to
face fierce battles and cruelties and yet they live today. Some mysterious
power has preserved them. Some invisible force has protected them. That
power will protect them for ever.
Hinduism is neither asceticism nor illusionism, neither polytheism
nor pantheism. It is the synthesis of all types of religious experiences.
It is a whole and complete view of life. It is characterised by wide
toleration, deep humanity and high spiritual purpose. It is free from
fanaticism. That is the reason why it has survived the attacks of the
followers of some of the other great religions of the world.
No religion is so very elastic and tolerant like Hinduism. Hinduism
is very stern and rigid regarding the fundamentals. It is very elastic
in readjusting to the externals and non-essentials. That is the reason
why it has succeeded in living through millennia.
The foundation of Hinduism has been laid on the bedrock of spiritual
truths. The entire structure of Hindu life is built on eternal truths,
the findings of the Hindu Rishis or seers. That is the reason why this
structure has lasted through scores of centuries.
The glory of Hinduism is ineffable. It has within it all the features
of a universal religion. Its Dharmas are universal. Its doctrines are
sublime. Its philosophy is grand. Its ethics is soul-elevating. Its
scriptures are wonderful. Its Sadhanas or Yoga-Vedantic practices are
unique. Glorious has been the past of this religion; still more glorious
is its future. It has a message to give to a world rent asunder by hatred,
dissension and war—the message of cosmic love, truth and non-violence,
the gospel of unity of Self or Upanishadic oneness.
The more you know of India and Hinduism, the more will you come to
regard and love it and the more grateful to the Lord will you be in
that you have got a taste for practising Yoga and that you are imbibing
the teachings and spirit of Hinduism.
Glory to India! Glory to Hinduism! Glory, glory to the Rishis and the
seers who have kept burning the flame of Hinduism with its extreme effulgence
and splendour!
CHAPTER 2
Sanskrit literature can be classified under six orthodox heads and
four secular heads. The six orthodox sections form the authoritative
scriptures of the Hindus. The four secular sections embody the later
developments in classical Sanskrit literature.
The six scriptures are: (i) Srutis, (ii) Smritis, (iii) Itihasas, (iv)
Puranas, (v) Agamas and (vi) Darsanas.
The four secular writings are: (i) Subhashitas, (ii) Kavyas, (iii)
Natakas and (iv) Alankaras.
The Srutis
The Srutis are called the Vedas, or the Amnaya. The
Hindus have received their religion through revelation, the Vedas. These
are direct intuitional revelations and are held to be Apaurusheya
or entirely superhuman, without any author in particular. The Veda
is the glorious pride of the Hindus, nay, of the whole world!
The term Veda comes from the root Vid, to know. The word
Veda means knowledge. When it is applied to scripture, it signifies
a book of knowledge. The Vedas are the foundational scriptures of the
Hindus. The Veda is the source of the other five sets of scriptures,
why, even of the secular and the materialistic. The Veda is the storehouse
of Indian wisdom and is a memorable glory which man can never forget
till eternity.
Revealed Truths Without Beginning or End
The Vedas are the eternal truths revealed by God to the great ancient
Rishis of India. The word Rishi means a seer from dris, to
see. He is the Mantra-Drashta, a seer of Mantra or thought. The
thought was not his own. The Rishis saw the truths or heard them. Therefore,
the Vedas are what are heard (Sruti). The Rishi did not write. He did
not create it out of his mind. He was the seer of thought which existed
already. He was only the spiritual discoverer of the thought. He is
not the inventor of the Veda.
The Vedas represent the spiritual experiences of the Rishis of yore.
The Rishi is only a medium or an agent to transmit to people the intuitional
experiences which he received. The truths of the Vedas are revelations.
All the other religions of the world claim their authority as being
delivered by special messengers of God to certain persons, but the Vedas
do not owe their authority to any one. They are themselves the authority
as they are eternal, as they are the Knowledge of the Lord.
Lord Brahma, the Creator, imparted the divine knowledge to the Rishis
or seers. The Rishis disseminated the knowledge. The Vedic Rishis were
great realised persons who had direct intuitive perception of Brahman
or the Truth. They were inspired writers. They built a simple, grand
and perfect system of religion and philosophy from which the founders
and teachers of all other religions have drawn their inspiration.
The Vedas are the oldest books in the library of man. The truths contained
in all religions are derived from the Vedas and are ultimately traceable
to the Vedas. The Vedas are the fountain-head of religion. The Vedas
are the ultimate source to which all religious knowledge can be traced.
Religion is of divine origin. It was revealed by God to man in the earliest
times. It is embodied in the Vedas.
The Vedas are eternal. They are without beginning and end. An ignorant
man may say how a book can be without
beginning or end. By the Vedas, no books are meant. Vedas came out
of the breath of the Lord. They are the words of God. The Vedas are
not the utterances of persons. They are not the composition of any human
mind. They were never written, never created. They are eternal and impersonal.
The date of the Vedas has never been fixed. It can never be fixed. Vedas
are eternal spiritual truths. Vedas are an embodiment of divine knowledge.
The books may be destroyed, but the knowledge cannot be destroyed. Knowledge
is eternal. In that sense, the Vedas are eternal.
The Four Vedas and Their Sub Divisions
The Veda is divided into four great books: the Rig-Veda, the Yajur-Veda,
the Sama-Veda and the Atharva-Veda. The Yajur-Veda is again divided
into two parts, the Sukla and the Krishna. The Krishna or the Taittiriya
is the older book and the Sukla or the Vajasaneya is a later revelation
to sage Yajnavalkya from the resplendent Sun-God.
The Rig-Veda is divided into twenty-one sections, the Yajur-Veda into
one hundred and nine sections, the Sama-Veda into one thousand sections
and the Atharva-Veda into fifty sections. In all, the whole Veda is
thus divided into one thousand one hundred and eighty recensions.
Each Veda consists of four parts: the Mantra-Samhitas or hymns, the
Brahmanas or explanations of Mantras or rituals, the Aranyakas and the
Upanishads. The division of the Vedas into four parts is to suit the
four stages in a man’s life.
The Mantra-Samhitas are hymns in praise of the Vedic God for attaining
material prosperity here and happiness hereafter. They are metrical
poems comprising prayers, hymns and incantations addressed to various
deities, both subjective and objective. The Mantra portion of the Vedas
is useful for the Brahmacharins.
The Brahmana portions guide people to perform sacrificial rites. They
are prose explanations of the method of using the Mantras in the Yajna
or the sacrifice. The Brahmana portion is suitable for the householders.
The Aranyakas are the forest books, the mystical sylvan texts which
give philosophical interpretations of the rituals. The Aranyakas are
intended for the Vanaprasthas or hermits who prepare themselves for
taking Sannyasa.
The Upanishads are the most important portion of the Vedas. The Upanishads
contain the essence or the knowledge portion of the Vedas. The philosophy
of the Upanishads is sublime, profound, lofty and soul-stirring. The
Upanishads speak of the identity of the individual soul and the Supreme
Soul. They reveal the most subtle and deep spiritual truths. The Upanishads
are useful for the Sannyasins.
The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda,
Upasana-Kanda and Jnana-Kanda. The Karma-Kanda or Ritualistic
Section deals with various sacrifices and rituals. The Upasana-Kanda
or Worship-Section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation.
The Jnana-Kanda or Knowledge-Section deals with the highest knowledge
of Nirguna Brahman. The Mantras and the Brahmanas constitute Karma-Kanda;
the Aranyakas Upasana-Kanda; and the Upanishads Jnana-Kanda.
The Mantra-Samhitas
The Rig-Veda Samhita is the grandest book of the Hindus, the oldest
and the best. It is the Great Indian Bible, which no Hindu would forget
to adore from the core of his heart. Its style, the language and the
tone are most beautiful and mysterious. Its immortal Mantras embody
the greatest truths of existence, and it is perhaps the greatest treasure
in all the scriptural literature of the world. Its priest is called
the Hotri.
The Yajur-Veda Samhita is mostly in prose and is meant to be used by
the Adhvaryu, the Yajur-Vedic priest, for superfluous explanations of
the rites in sacrifices, supplementing the Rig-Vedic Mantras.
The Sama-Veda Samhita is mostly borrowed from the Rig-Vedic Samhita
and is meant to be sung by the Udgatri, the Sama-Vedic priest, in sacrifices.
The Atharva-Veda Samhita is meant to be used by the Brahma, the Atharva-Vedic
priest, to correct the mispronunciations and wrong performances that
may accidentally be committed by the other three priests of the sacrifice.
The Brahmanas and the Aranyakas
There are two Brahmanas to the Rig-Veda—the Aitareya and the Sankhayana.
“The Rig-Veda,” says Max Muller, “is the most ancient
book of the world. The sacred hymns of the Brahmanas stand unparalleled
in the literature of the whole world; and their preservation might well
be called miraculous.” (HISTORY OF ANCIENT SANSKRIT LITERATURE)
The Satapatha Brahmana belongs to the Sukla Yajur-Veda. The Krishna-Yajur-Veda
has the Taittiriya and the Maitrayana Brahmanas. The Tandya or Panchavimsa,
the Shadvimsa, the Chhandogya, the Adbhuta, the Arsheya and the Upanishad
Brahmanas belong to the Sama-Veda. The Brahmana of the Atharva-Veda
is called the Gopatha. Each of the Brahmanas has got an Aranyaka.
The Upanishads
The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Vedas or the end
of the Vedas. The teaching based on them is called Vedanta. The Upanishads
are the gist and the goal of the Vedas. They form the very foundation
of Hinduism.
There are as many Upanishads to each Veda as there are Sakhas, branches
or recensions, i.e., 21, 109, 1000 and 50 respectively to the four Vedas,
the Rig-Veda, the Yajur-Veda, the Sama-Veda and the Atharva-Veda.
The different philosophers of India belonging to different schools,
such as Monism, Qualified Monism, Dualism, Pure Monism, Difference-cum-non-difference,
etc., have acknowledged the supreme authority of the Upanishads. They
have given their own interpretations, but they have obeyed the authority.
They have built their philosophy on the foundation of the Upanishads.
Even the Western scholars have paid their tribute to the seers of the
Upanishads. At a time when the Westerners were clad in barks and were
sunk in deep ignorance, the Upanishadic seers were enjoying the eternal
bliss of the Absolute, and had the highest culture and civilisation.
The most important Upanishads are Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka,
Mandukya, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Kaushitaki
and Svetasvatara and Maitrayani. These are supremely authoritative.
May the fundamental truths of the Vedas be revealed unto you all, like
the Amalaka fruit in the palm of your hand. May Gayatri, the blessed
Mother of the Vedas, impart to you the milk of Knowledge, the ancient
wisdom of the Upanishads.
The Upa-Vedas
There are four Upa-Vedas or subsidiary Vedas, viz., the Ayurveda,
the Dhanurveda, the Gandharva Veda and the Arthasastra, forming auxiliaries
to the four Vedas, which mean, respectively, the science of health,
the science of war, the science of music and the science of polity.
The Vedangas
There are six Angas or explanatory limbs, to the Vedas: the
Siksha and Vyakarana of Panini, the Chhandas of
Pingalacharya, the Nirukta of Yaska, the Jyotisha of Garga,
and the Kalpas (Srauta, Grihya, Dharma and Sulba) belonging to
the authorship of various Rishis.
Siksha is a knowledge of phonetics. Siksha deals with pronunciation
and accent. The text of the Vedas is arranged in various forms or Pathas.
The Pada-patha gives each word its separate form. The Krama-patha
connects the word in pairs.
Vyakarana is Sanskrit grammar. Panini’s books are most famous.
Without knowledge of Vyakarana, you cannot understand the Vedas.
Chhandas is metre dealing with prosody.
Nirukta is philology or etymology.
Jyotisha is astronomy and astrology. It deals with the movements of
the heavenly bodies, planets, etc., and their influence in human affairs.
Kalpa is the method of ritual. The Srauta Sutras which explain the
ritual of sacrifices belong to Kalpa. The sulba Sutras, which treat
of the measurements which are necessary for laying out the sacrificial
areas, also belong to Kalpa. The Grihya Sutras which concern domestic
life, and the Dharma Sutras which deal with ethics, customs and laws,
also belong to Kalpa.
The Pratishakhyas, Padapathas, Kramapathas, Upalekhas, Anukramanis,
Daivatsamhitas, Parishishtas, Prayogas, Paddhatis, Karikas, Khilas and
Vyuhas are further elaborations in the rituals of the Kalpa Sutras.
Among the Kalpa Sutras, the Asvalayana, Sankhyana and the Sambhavya
belong to the Rig-Veda. The Mashaka, Latyayana, Drahyayana, Gobhila
and Khadira belong to the Sama-Veda. The Katyayana and Paraskara belong
to the Sukla Yajur-Veda. The Apastamba, Hiranyakesi, Bodhayana, Bharadvaja,
Manava, Vaikhanasa and the Kathaka belong to the Krishna Yajur-Veda.
The Vaitana and the Kaushika belong to the Atharva-Veda.
The Smritis
Next in importance to the Sruti are the Smritis or secondary scriptures.
These are the ancient sacred law-codes of the Hindus dealing with the
Sanatana-Varnasrama-Dharma. They supplement and explain the ritualistic
injunctions called Vidhis in the Vedas. The Smriti Sastra is
founded on the Sruti. The Smritis are based on the teachings of the
Vedas. The Smriti stands next in authority to the Sruti. It explains
and develops Dharma. It lays down the laws which regulate Hindu national,
social, family and individual obligations.
The works which are expressly called Smritis are the law books, Dharma
Sastras. Smriti, in a broader sense, covers all Hindu Sastras save the
Vedas.
The laws for regulating Hindu society from time to time are codified
in the Smritis. The Smritis have laid down definite rules and laws to
guide the individuals and communities in their daily conduct and to
regulate their manners and customs. The Smritis have given detailed
instructions, according to the conditions of the time, to all classes
of men regarding their duties in life.
The Hindu learns how he has to spend his whole life from these Smritis.
The duties of Varnasrama and all ceremonies are clearly given in these
books. The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for
a Hindu, according to his birth and stage of life. The object of the
Smritis is to purify the heart of man and take him gradually to the
supreme abode of immortality and make him perfect and free.
These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions
of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As
these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed
from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the sages of different
ages and different parts of India.
The Celebrated Hindu Law-Givers
From time to time, a great law-giver would take his birth. He would
codify the existing laws and remove those which had become obsolete.
He would make some alterations, adaptations, readjustments, additions
and subtractions, to suit the needs of the time and see that the way
of living of the people would be in accordance with the teachings of
the Veda. Of such law-givers, Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the
most celebrated persons. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by,
the laws made by these three great sages. The Smritis are named after
them. We have Manu Smriti or Manava Dharma-Sastra (the Laws of Manu
or the Institutes of Manu), Yajnavalkya Smriti and Parasara Smriti.
Manu is the greatest law-giver of the race. He is the oldest law-giver
as well. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the
Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya
Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative
works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all
matters of Hindu Law. Even the Government of India are applying some
of these laws.
There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Sastras. The most important
are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara. The other fifteen are those
of Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama,
Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka.
The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya
are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara
Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga.
The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions,
time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing
conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society
can be ensured.
Need for a New Law-Code
It is not possible to follow some of the laws of Manu at the present
time. We can follow their spirit and not the letter. Society is advancing.
When it advances, it outgrows certain laws which were valid and helpful
at a particular stage of its growth. Many new things which were not
thought out by the old law-givers have come into existence now. It is
no use insisting people to follow now those old laws which have become
obsolete.
Our present society has considerably changed. A new Smriti to suit
the requirements of this age is very necessary. Another sage will place
before the Hindus of our days a new suitable code of laws. Time is ripe
for a new Smriti. Cordial greetings to this age.
The Inner Voice of Dharma
He who is endowed with a pure heart through protracted Tapas, Japa,
Kirtana, meditation and service of Guru and who has a very clear conscience,
can be guided by the inner voice in matters of Dharma or duty or moral
action. The inner voice that proceeds from a clean heart filled with
Sattva is, indeed, the voice of God or Soul or Antaryamin or Inner Ruler.
This voice is more than Smriti. It is Smriti of Smritis. Purify your
heart and train yourself to hear this inner voice. Keep your ear in
tune with the ‘voice’.
The Sruti and the Smriti
The Sruti and the Smriti are the two authoritative sources of Hinduism.
Sruti literally means what is heard, and Smriti means
what is remembered. Sruti is revelation and Smriti is tradition. Upanishad
is a Sruti. Bhagavad-Gita is a Smriti.
Sruti is direct experience. Great Rishis heard the eternal truths of
religion and left a record of them for the benefit of posterity. These
records constitute the Vedas. Hence, Sruti is primary authority. Smriti
is a recollection of that experience. Hence, it is secondary authority.
The Smritis or Dharma Sastras also are books written by sages, but they
are not the final authority. If there is anything in a Smriti which
contradicts the Sruti, the Smriti is to be rejected.
The Itihasas
The Friendly Treatises and the Commanding Treatises
There are four books under this heading: The Valmiki-Ramayana, the
Yogavasishtha, The Mahabharata and the Harivamsa. These embody all that
is in the Vedas, but only in a simpler manner. These are called the
Suhrit-Samhitas or the Friendly Treatises, while the Vedas are called
the Prabhu-Samhitas or the Commanding Treatises with great authority.
These works explain the great universal truths in the form of historical
narratives, stories and dialogues. These are very interesting volumes
and are liked by all, from the inquisitive child to the intellectual
scholar.
The Itihasas give us beautiful stories of absorbing interest and importance,
through which all the fundamental teachings of Hinduism are indelibly
impressed on one’s mind. The laws of Smritis and the principles
of the Vedas are stamped firmly on the minds of the Hindus through the
noble and marvellous deeds of their great national heroes. We get a
clear idea of Hinduism from these sublime stories.
The common man cannot comprehend the high abstract philosophy of the
Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras. Hence, the compassionate sages Valmiki
and Vyasa wrote the Itihasas for the benefit of common people. The same
philosophy is presented with analogies and parables in a tasteful form
to the common run of mankind.
The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas),
Ramayana and Mahabharata. They are two very popular and
useful Sastras of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the sage Valmiki,
and the Mahabharata by Vyasa.
The Ramayana
The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story
of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar
race descended from Ikshvaku, in which was born Sri Ramachandra, the
Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters
like Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in
Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the
birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile
of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction
of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are
described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his
superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom,
how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his
release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this excellent epic.
The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian life. Even today our domestic,
social and national ideals are copied from the noble characters in the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The great national heroes stand even today
as beacon-lights to guide and inspire the people of the whole world.
The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal
affection and mutual service. Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique
Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example
of womanly fidelity, chastity and sweetness. The Ramayana is written
in twenty-four thousand verses by Sri Valmiki.
The Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It
gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which
broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and
descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of
Hindu Dharma. It is rightly called the fifth Veda. There is really no
theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great
epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings,
useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses,
sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals
and metaphysics. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of
Lord Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand verses
by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa.
The Bhagavad-Gita
The most important part of the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad-Gita.
It is a marvellous dialogue between Lord Krishna and Arjuna on the
battle-field, before the commencement of the great war. Bhagavan Sri
Krishna became the charioteer of Arjuna. Sri Krishna explained the essentials
of Hindu religion to Arjuna. Just as the Upanishads contain the cream
of the Vedas, so does the Gita contain the cream of the Upanishads.
The Upanishads are the cows. Lord Krishna is the cowherd. Arjuna is
the calf. The Gita is the milk. The wise men are those who drink the
milk of the Gita.
The Gita is the most precious jewel of Hindu literature. It is a universal
gospel. The Gita teaches the Yoga of Synthesis. It ranks high in the
religious literature of the world.
Arjuna saw before him his dear relatives and teachers in the battle-field.
He fainted and refused to fight against them. Then Lord Krishna imparted
knowledge of the Self to Arjuna and convinced him that it was his duty
to fight regardless of consequences. Afterwards Arjuna gave up his Moha,
or delusion. All his doubts were cleared. He fought against the
Kauravas and achieved victory.
Knowledge of Ancient Indian History and Culture
The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on
Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed
of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopaedia of history,
morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world.
The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us clearly about the ancient
India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts,
her civilisation and culture, her manufactures, etc. If you read these
two books, you will come to know how great India once was, and you will
be inspired to make her great once more. No other country has produced
so many great men, great teachers, great Yogins, great Rishis, great
prophets, great Acharyas, great kings, great heroes, great statesmen,
great patriots and great benefactors, as India. The more you know of
India and Hinduism, the more you will honour and love it and the more
thankful to the Lord you will be that you were born in India as a Hindu.
Glory to India! Glory to Hinduism! Glory to the seers of the Upanishads!
Glory, glory to Lord Krishna, the author of the Song Divine!
The Puranas
The Puranas are of the same class as the Itihasas. They have five characteristics
(Pancha-Lakshana) viz., history, cosmology (with various symbolical
illustrations of philosophical principles), secondary creation, genealogy
of kings and of Manvantaras. All the Puranas belong to the class of
Suhrit-Samhitas.
Vyasa is the compiler of the Puranas from age to age; and for this
age, he is Krishnadvaipayana, the son of Parasara.
The Puranas were written to popularise the religion of the Vedas. They
contain the essence of the Vedas. The aim of the Puranas is to impress
on the minds of the masses the teachings of the Vedas and to generate
in them devotion to God, through concrete examples, myths, stories,
legends, lives of saints, kings and great men, allegories and chronicles
of great historical events. The sages made use of these things to illustrate
the eternal principles of religion. The Puranas were meant, not for
the scholars, but for the ordinary people who could not understand high
philosophy and who could not study the Vedas.
The Darsanas are very stiff. They are meant only for the learned few.
The Puranas are meant for the masses with inferior intellect. Religion
is taught in a very easy and interesting way through these Puranas.
Even to this day, the Puranas are popular. The Puranas contain the history
of remote times. They also give a description of the regions of the
universe not visible to the ordinary physical eye. They are very interesting
to read and are full of information of all kinds. Children hear the
stories from their grandmothers. Pundits and Purohits hold Kathas in
temples, on banks of rivers and in other important places. Agriculturists,
labourers and bazaar people hear the stories.
The Eighteen Puranas
There are eighteen main Puranas and an equal number of subsidiary Puranas
or Upa-Puranas. The main Puranas are: Vishnu Purana, Naradiya Purana,
Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Garuda (Suparna) Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha
Purana, Brahma Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya
Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana, Matsya Purana, Kurma Purana,
Linga Purana, Siva Purana, Skanda Purana and Agni Purana. Of these,
six are Sattvic Puranas and glorify Vishnu; six are Rajasic and glorify
Brahma; six are Tamasic and they glorify Siva.
Neophytes or beginners in the spiritual Path are puzzled when they
go through Siva Purana and Vishnu Purana. In Siva Purana, Lord Siva
is highly eulogised and an inferior position is given to Lord Vishnu.
Sometimes Vishnu is belittled. In Vishnu Purana, Lord Hari is highly
eulogised and an inferior status is given to Lord Siva. Sometimes Lord
Siva is belittled. This is only to increase the faith of the devotees
in their particular Ishta-Devata. Lord Siva and Lord Vishnu are one.
The best among the Puranas are the Srimad Bhagavata and the Vishnu
Purana. The most popular is the Srimad Bhagavata Purana. Next comes
Vishnu Purana. A portion of the Markandeya Purana is well known to all
Hindus as Chandi, or Devimahatmya. Worship of God as the Divine
Mother is its theme. Chandi is read widely by the Hindus on sacred days
and Navaratri (Durga Puja) days.
The Srimad Bhagavata Purana and the Ten Avataras
The Srimad Bhagavata Purana is a chronicle of the various Avataras
of Lord Vishnu. There are ten Avataras of Vishnu. The aim of every Avatara
is to save the world from some great danger, to destroy the wicked and
protect the virtuous. The ten Avataras are: Matsya (The Fish), Kurma
(The Tortoise), Varaha (The Boar), Narasimha (The Man-Lion), Vamana
(The Dwarf), Parasurama (Rama with the axe, the destroyer of the Kshatriya
race), Ramachandra (The hero of Ramayana—the son of Dasaratha),
who destroyed Ravana, Sri Krishna, The teacher of the Gita, Buddha (The
prince-ascetic, founder of Buddhism) and Kalki (The hero riding on a
white horse, who is to come at the end of the Kali-Yuga).
The object of the Matsya Avatara was to save Vaivasvata Manu from destruction
by a deluge. The object of Kurma Avatara was to enable the world to
recover some precious things which were lost in the deluge. The Kurma
gave its back for keeping the churning rod when the Gods and the Asuras
churned the ocean of milk. The purpose of Varaha Avatara was to rescue,
from the waters, the earth which had been dragged down by a demon named
Hiranyaksha. The purpose of Narasimha Avatara, half-lion and half-man,
was to free the world from the oppression of Hiranyakasipu, a demon,
the father of Bhakta Prahlada. The object of Vamana Avatara was to restore
the power of the gods which had been eclipsed by the penance and devotion
of King Bali. The object of Parasurama Avatara was to deliver the country
from the oppression of the Kshatriya rulers. Parasurama destroyed the
Kshatriya race twenty-one times. The object of Rama was to destroy the
wicked Ravana. The object of Sri Krishna Avatara was to destroy Kamsa
and other demons, to deliver His wonderful message of the Gita in the
Mahabharata war, and to become the centre of the Bhakti schools of India.
The object of Buddha Avatara was to prohibit animal sacrifices and teach
piety. The object of the Kalki Avatara is the destruction of the wicked
and the re-establishment of virtue.
The Tamil Puranas
Lord Siva incarnated himself in the form of Dakshinamurti to impart
knowledge to the four Kumaras. He took human form to initiate Sambandhar,
Manikkavasagar, Pattinathar. He appeared in flesh and blood to help
his devotees and relieve their sufferings. The divine Lilas of Lord
Siva are recorded in the Tamil Puranas like Siva Purana, Periya Purana,
Siva Parakramam and Tiruvilayadal Purana.
The Upa-Puranas
The eighteen Upa-Puranas are: Sanatkumara, Narasimha, Brihannaradiya,
Sivarahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba,
Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesa and Hamsa.
Utility of the Puranas
Study of the Puranas, listening to sacred recitals of scriptures, describing
and expounding of the transcendent Lilas of the Blessed Lord—these
form an important part of Sadhana of the Lord’s devotees. It is
most pleasing to the Lord. Sravana is a part of Navavidha-Bhakti.
Kathas and Upanyasas open the springs of devotion in the
hearts of hearers and develop Prema-Bhakti which confers immortality
on the Jiva.
The language of the Vedas is archaic, and the subtle philosophy of
Vedanta and the Upanishads is extremely difficult to grasp and assimilate.
Hence, the Puranas are of special value as they present philosophical
truths and precious teachings in an easier manner. They give ready access
to the mysteries of life and the key to bliss. Imbibe their teachings.
Start a new life of Dharma-Nishtha and Adhyatmic Sadhana from this very
day.
The Agamas
Another class of popular scriptures are the Agamas. The Agamas are
theological treatises and practical manuals of divine worship. The Agamas
include the Tantras, Mantras and Yantras. These are treatises explaining
the external worship of God, in idols, temples, etc. All the Agamas
treat of (i) Jnana or Knowledge, (ii) Yoga or Concentration,
(iii) Kriya or Esoteric Ritual and (iv) Charya or Exoteric
Worship. They also give elaborate details about ontology and cosmology,
liberation, devotion, meditation, philosophy of Mantras, mystic
diagrams, charms and spells, temple-building, image-making, domestic
observances, social rules, public festivals, etc.
The Agamas are divided into three sections: The Vaishnava, the
Saiva and the Sakta. The three chief sects of Hinduism,
viz., Vaishnavism, Saivism and Saktism, base their doctrines and dogmas
on their respective Agamas. The Vaishnava Agamas or Pancharatra Agamas
glorify God as Vishnu. The Saiva Agamas glorify God as Siva and have
given rise to an important school of philosophy known as Saiva-Siddhanta,
which prevails in South India, particularly in the districts of Tirunelveli
and Madurai. The Sakta Agamas or Tantras glorify God as the Mother of
the Universe, under one of the many names of Devi.
The Agamas do not derive their authority from the Vedas, but are not
antagonistic to them. They are all Vedic in spirit and character. That
is the reason why they are regarded as authoritative.
The Vaishnava Agamas
The Vaishnava Agamas are of four kinds: the Vaikhanasa, Pancharatra,
Pratishthasara and Vijnanalalita. The Brahma, Saiva Kaumara, Vasishtha,
Kapila, Gautamiya and the Naradiya are the seven groups of the Pancharatras.
The Naradiya section of the Santi-Parva of the Mahabharata is the earliest
source of information about the Pancharatras.
Vishnu is the Supreme Lord in the Pancharatra Agamas. The Vaishnavas
regard the Pancharatra Agamas to be the most authoritative. They believe
that these Agamas were revealed by Lord Vishnu Himself. Narada-Pancharatra
says: “Everything from Brahma to a blade of grass is Lord Krishna.”
This corresponds to the Upanishadic declaration: “All this is,
verily, Brahman—Sarvam Khalvidam Brahma.”
There are two hundred and fifteen of these Vaishnava texts. Isvara,
Ahirbudhnya, Paushkara, Parama, Sattvata, Brihad-Brahma and Jnanamritasara
Samhitas are the important ones.
The Saiva Agamas
The Saivas recognise twenty-eight Agamas, of which the chief is Kamika.
The Agamas are also the basis of Kashmir Saivism which is called the
Pratyabhijna system. The latter works of Pratyabhijna system show a
distinct leaning to Advaitism. The Southern Saivism, i.e., Saiva Siddhanta
and the Kashmir Saivism, regard these Agamas as their authority, besides
the Vedas. Each Agama has Upa-Agamas. Of these, only fragmentary texts
of twenty are extant. Lord Siva is the central God in the Saiva Agamas.
They are suitable to this age, Kali Yoga. They are open to all castes
and both the sexes.
The Sakta Agamas
There is another group of scriptures known as the Tantras. They
belong to the Sakta cult. They glorify Sakti as the World-Mother. They
dwell on the Sakti (energy) aspect of God and prescribe numerous courses
of ritualistic worship of the Divine Mother in various forms. There
are seventy-seven Agamas. These are very much like the Puranas in some
respects. The texts are usually in the form of dialogues between Siva
and Parvati. In some of these, Siva answers the questions put by Parvati,
and in others, Parvati answers, Siva questioning. Mahanirvana, Kularnava,
Kulasara, Prapanchasara, Tantraraja, Rudra-Yamala, Brahma-Yamala, Vishnu-Yamala
and Todala Tantra are the important works. The Agamas teach several
occult practices some of which confer powers, while the others bestow
knowledge and freedom. Sakti is the creative power of Lord Siva. Saktism
is really a supplement to Saivism.
Among the existing books on the Agamas, the most famous are the Isvara-Samhita,
Ahirbudhnya-Samhita, Sanatkumara-Samhita, Narada-Pancharatra, Spanda-Pradipika
and the Mahanirvana-Tantra.
The Six Darsanas
These are the intellectual section of the Hindu writings, while the
first four are intuitional, and the fifth inspirational and emotional.
Darsanas are schools of philosophy based on the Vedas. The Agamas are
theological. The Darsana literature is philosophical. The Darsanas are
meant for the erudite scholars who are endowed with acute acumen, good
understanding, power of reasoning and subtle intellect. The Itihasas,
Puranas and Agamas are meant for the masses. The Darsanas appeal to
the intellect, while the Itihasas, Puranas, etc., appeal to the heart.
Philosophy has six divisions—Shad-darsana—the six
Darsanas or ways of seeing things, usually called the six systems or
six different schools of thought. The six schools of philosophy are
the six instruments of true teaching or the six demonstrations of Truth.
Each school has developed, systematised and correlated the various parts
of the Veda in its own way. Each system has its Sutrakara, i.e.,
the one great Rishi who systematised the doctrines of the school and
put them in short aphorisms or Sutras.
The Sutras are terse and laconic. The Rishis have condensed their thoughts
in the aphorisms. It is very difficult to understand them without the
help of commentaries by great sages or Rishis. Hence, there arose many
commentators or Bhashyakaras. There are glosses, notes and, later,
commentaries on the original commentaries.
The Shad-Darsanas (the six schools of philosophy) or the Shat-Sastras
are: the NYAYA, founded by Gautama Rishi, the VAISESHIKA by Kanada Rishi,
the SANKHYA by Kapila Muni, the YOGA by Patanjali Maharshi, the PURVA
MIMAMSA by Jaimini, and the UTTARA MIMAMSA or VEDANTA by Badarayana
or Vyasa. The Darsanas are divided into three pairs of aphoristic compositions
which explain the philosophy of the Vedas in a rationalistic method
of approach. They are: the Nyaya and the Vaiseshika, the Sankhya and
the Yoga, and the Mimamsa and the Vedanta. Each set of Sutras has got
its Bhashya, Vritti, Varttika, Vyakhyana or Tika and Tippani.
Sutra
Svalpaksharam-asandigdham
Saravad-visvatomukham
Astobham-anavadyam cha
Sutram sutravido viduh
A Sutra or an aphorism is a short formula with the least possible number
of letters, without any ambiguity or doubtful assertion, containing
the very essence, embracing all meanings, without any stop or obstruction
and absolutely faultless in nature.
The Sutrakara or the composer of the aphorisms is said to be as happy
as one would be while getting the first male child, if he is but able
to reduce one letter in his abstruse Sutra of far-fetched words and
ideas. The best example of the greatest, the tersest and the most perfect
of Sutra literature is the series of aphorisms called the Ashtadhyayi
composed by Panini. Panini is the father of all Sutrakaras from
whom all others seem to have borrowed the method of composition. The
Sutras are meant to explain a big volume of knowledge in short assertions
suitable to be kept in memory at all times. The six Vedangas and the
six systems of Hindu philosophy form the twelve sets of Sutra literature
of the world. In addition to these, there are later compositions like
the Narada-Bhakti Sutras, the Sandilya-Bhakti Sutras, etc., which also
wish to assume an equal form with the famous Sutras mentioned above.
Bhashya
Sutrartho varnyate yatra
Padaih sutranusaribhih
Svapadani cha varnyante
Bhashyam bhashyavido viduh
A Bhashya is an elaborate exposition, a commentary on the Sutras, with
word by word meaning of the aphoristic precepts, their running translation,
together with the individual views of the commentator or the Bhashyakara.
The best and the exemplary Bhashya in Sanskrit literature is the one
written by Patanjali on the Vyakarana Sutras of Panini. This Bhashya
is so very famous and important that it is called the MAHABHASHYA and
its celebrated author is specially called the BHASHYAKARA. Patanjali
is the father of Bhashyakaras. The next important Bhashya is the one
on the Mimamsa Sutras written by Sabara-Swamin who learnt the art from
Patanjali’s commentary. The third important Bhashya was written
by Sankara on the Brahma Sutras, in close following with the Sabara-Bhashya.
The Bhashyas on the six sets of aphorisms dealing with Indian philosophy
were written by Vatsyayana, Prasastapada, Vijnanabhikshu, Vyasa, Sabara
and Sankara. On the Vedanta or Brahma Sutras, there are about sixteen
Bhashyas, like those of Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha, Nimbarka, etc.
Vritti
Sadvrittih sannibandhana
A Vritti is a short gloss explaining the aphorisms in a more elaborate
way, but not as extensively as a Bhashya. An example is Bodhayana’s
Vritti on the Brahma Sutras.
Varttika
Uktanuktaduruktanam
Chinta yatra pravartate
Tam grantham varttikam prahuh
Varttikajnavichakshanah
A Varttika is a work where a critical study is made of that which is
said and left unsaid or imperfectly said in a Bhashya, and the ways
of making it perfect by supplying the omissions therein, are given.
Examples are the Varttikas of Katyayana on Panini’s Sutras, of
Suresvara on Sankara’s Upanishad-Bhashyas, and of Kumarila Bhatta
on the Sabara-Bhashya on the Karma-Mimamsa.
Vyakhyana or Tika
A Vyakhyana is a running explanation in an easier language of what
is said in the original, with little elucidations here and there. A
Vyakhyana, particularly of a Kavya, deals with eight different modes
of dissection of the Sloka, like Pada-Chheda, Vigraha, Sandhi, Alankara,
Anuvada, etc. This forms an important aspect in the study of Sanskrit
Sahitya Sastra. An Anu-Vyakhyana—like the one written by Sri Madhva—is
a repetition of what is already written, but in greater detail. An Anuvada
is merely a running translation or statement of an abstruse text of
the original. Tika is only another name for Vyakhyana. The best Vyakhyanas
are of Vachaspati Misra on the Darsanas, especially on Sankara’s
Brahmasutra-Bhashya.
Tippani
Tippani is just like a Vritti, but is less orthodox than the Vritti.
It is an explanation of difficult words or phrases occurring in the
original. Examples are Kaiyata’s gloss on the Mahabhashya of Patanjali,
Nagojibhatta’s gloss on Kaiyata’s gloss, or Appayya’s
gloss on Amalananda’s gloss on the Bhamati of Vachaspati Misra.
Other Scriptures
The Tevaram and the Tiruvachakam which are the hymns of the Saiva saints
of South India, the Divya-Prabandham of the Alvar saints of South India,
the songs of Kabir, the Abhangas of Tukaram and the Ramayana of Tulasi
Das—all of which are the outpourings of great realised souls—are
wonderful scriptures. They contain the essence of the Vedas.
The Subhashitas
The Subhashitas are wise sayings, instructions and stories, either
in poetry or in prose. Examples are Bhartrihari’s three centuries
of verses, the Subhashita-Ratna-Bhandagara and Somadeva Bhatta’s
Katha-Sarit-Sagara or Kshemendra’s Brihat-Katha-Manjari. The Panchatantra
and the Hitopadesa also belong to this category.
The Kavyas
These are highly scholarly compositions in poetry, prose or both. The
greatest of poetical Kavyas are those of Kalidas (The Raghuvamsa
and Kumarasambhava), Bharavi (The Kiratarjuniya), Magha
(The Sisupalavadha), Sri Harsha (The Naishadha). The best
prose Kavyas in the whole of Sanskrit literature were written by Bhattabana
(The Kadambari and Harshacharita), the great genius in
classical Sanskrit. Among those containing both poetry and prose, the
Champu-Ramayana and the Champu-Bharata are most famous. These are all
wonderful masterpieces which will ever remain to glorify India’s
literary calibre.
The Natakas
These are marvellously scholastic dramas embodying the Rasas of
Sringara, Vira, Karuna, Adbhuta, Hasya, Bhayanaka, Bibhatsa and Raudra.
It is told that none can write on the ninth Rasa, viz., Santi. It is
attainable only on final Liberation. The best dramas are written by
Kalidasa (Sakuntala), Bhavabhuti (Uttara-Rama-Charita), and
Visakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa).
The Alankaras
These are grand rhetorical texts, treating of the science of perfection
and beauty of ornamental language and of effective composition with
elegance and force, both in poetry and in prose. These are the fundamentals
of Sanskrit Sahitya, even superior to the Kavyas and the Natakas. The
best Alankara-Granthas are those of Mammata (Kavyaprakasa) and
Jagannatha (Rasagangadhara).
These constitute the entirety of Sanskrit literature—sacred and
secular. The Sruti is the root; the Smritis, Itihasas and Puranas are
the trunk; the Agamas and Darsanas are the branches; and the Subhashitas,
Kavyas, Natakas and Alankaras are the flowers of the tree of India’s
Culture.
The Smritis, the Itihasas, the Puranas, the Agamas and the Darsanas
are only developments of the Veda. Their ultimate source is the Veda.
Their one common aim is to enable man to annihilate his ignorance and
attain perfection, freedom, immortality and eternal bliss through knowledge
of God or the Eternal. Their purpose is to make man like God and one
with Him.
CHAPTER 3
Silent adorations to the Lord, the Embodiment of Dharma, the Controller
and Protector of Dharma and the Fountain-head of Dharma.
What is Dharma? Dharma is so called, because it holds; Dharma
alone holds the people, etc. The word Dharma is derived from
the root Dhr—to hold—and its etymological meaning is
‘that which holds’ this world, or the people of the world,
or the whole creation from the microcosm to the macrocosm. It is the
eternal Divine Law of the Lord. The entire creation is held together
and sustained by the All-powerful Law of God. Practice of Dharma, therefore,
means recognition of this Law and abidance by it.
That which brings well-being to man is Dharma. Dharma supports this
world. The people are upheld by Dharma. That which secures preservation
of beings is Dharma. Dharma leads to eternal happiness and immortality.
That which is Dharma is verily the Truth. Therefore, whosoever speaks
the truth is said to speak Dharma, and whosoever speaks Dharma is said
to speak the truth. One and the same thing becomes both.
Dharma includes all external deeds, as well as thoughts and other mental
practices which tend to elevate the character of man. Dharma comes from
the Divine and leads you to the Divine.
No language is perfect. There is no proper equivalent word in English
for the Sanskrit term Dharma. It is very difficult to define
Dharma.
Dharma is generally defined as ‘righteousness’ or ‘duty.’
Dharma is the principle of righteousness. It is the principle of holiness.
It is also the principle of unity. Bhishma says in his instructions
to Yudhishthira that whatever creates conflict is Adharma, and whatever
puts an end to conflict and brings about unity and harmony is Dharma.
Anything that helps to unite all and develop pure divine love and universal
brotherhood, is Dharma. Anything that creates discord, split and disharmony
and foments hatred, is Adharma. Dharma is the cementer and sustainer
of social life. The rules of Dharma have been laid down for regulating
the worldly affairs of men. Dharma brings as its consequence happiness,
both in this world and in the next. Dharma is the means of preserving
one’s self. If you transgress it, it will kill you. If you protect
it, it will protect you. It is your sole companion after death. It is
the sole refuge of humanity.
That which elevates one is Dharma. This is another definition. Dharma
is that which leads you to the path of perfection and glory. Dharma
is that which helps you to have direct communion with the Lord. Dharma
is that which makes you divine. Dharma is the ascending stairway unto
God. Self-realisation is the highest Dharma. Dharma is the heart of
Hindu ethics. God is the centre of Dharma.
Dharma means Achara or the regulation of daily life. Achara
is the supreme Dharma. It is the basis of Tapas or austerity. It leads
to wealth, beauty, longevity and continuity of lineage. Evil conduct
and immorality will lead to ill-fame, sorrow, disease and premature
death. Dharma has its root in morality and the controller of Dharma
is God Himself.
Maharshi Jaimini defines Dharma as that which is enjoined by the Vedas
and is not ultimately productive of suffering.
Rishi Kanada, founder of the Vaiseshika system of philosophy, has given
the best definition of Dharma, in his Vaiseshika Sutras: “Yato-bhyudayanihsreyasa-siddhih
sa dharmah.” “That which leads to the attainment of Abhyudaya
(prosperity in this world) and Nihsreyasa (total cessation
of pain and attainment of eternal bliss hereafter) is Dharma.”
The four Vedas, the Smriti texts, the behaviour of those who have entered
into their spirit and act according to their injunctions, the conduct
of holy men and satisfaction of one’s own self—these are the
bases of Dharma, according to Manu.
In the matter of Dharma, the Vedas are the ultimate authority. You
cannot know the truth about Dharma through any source of knowledge other
than the Vedas. Reason cannot be the authority in the matter of Dharma.
Among the scriptures of the world, the Vedas are the oldest. This is
supported by all leading scholars and antiquarians of the entire civilised
world. They all declare with one voice, that of all books so far written
in any human language, the Rig-Veda Samhita is undoubtedly the oldest.
No antiquarian has been able to fix the date when the Rig-Veda Samhita
was composed or came to light.
Just as a doctor prescribes different medicines for different people
according to their constitution and the nature of their disease, so
also Hinduism prescribes different duties for different people. Rules
for women are different from the rules for men. The rules for different
Varnas and Asramas vary. But, non-violence, truth, non-stealing, cleanliness
and control of the senses, are the duties common to all men.
Dharma depends upon time, circumstances, age, degree of evolution and
the community to which one belongs. The Dharma of this century is different
from that of the tenth century.
There are conditions under which Dharma may change its usual course.
Apad-Dharma is such a deviation from the usual practice. This is allowed
only in times of extreme distress or calamity.
What is Dharma in one set of circumstances becomes Adharma in another
set of circumstances. That is the reason why it is said that the secret
of Dharma is extremely profound and subtle. Lord Krishna says in the
Gita: “Let the scriptures be the authority in determining what
ought to be done and what ought not to be done” (Ch. XVI, 24).
The truth of Dharma lies hidden. Srutis and Smritis are many. The way
of Dharma open to all is that which a great realised soul has traversed.
All other religions also lay stress on Dharma. Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity,
Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, Islam are all remarkably alive to its value.
Plato, Socrates, Aristotle, Kant, Swedenborg and Spinoza are all striking
examples in the interesting history of Western philosophy for the high
pedestal on which they have placed morality, duty and righteousness,
and adored them all as the only means to the attainment of the goal
of life. Each religion lays greater stress on certain aspects of Dharma.
Of the four grand objects of human aspiration—Purusharthas—viz.,
Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, Dharma is given the foremost
rank in the scriptures. Dharma alone is the gateway to Moksha, to immortality,
infinite bliss, supreme peace and highest knowledge. Dharma alone is
the primary Purushartha. Dharma is the first and foremost Purushartha.
Through the practice of Dharma alone can you ever hope to achieve the
crowning glory of all human endeavours, viz., Moksha which is the best
and the highest of all desirable things.
Practice of Dharma leads to the perfect realisation of essential unity
or the final end, the highest good, namely, Moksha. The practitioner
experiences peace, joy, strength and tranquillity within himself. His
life becomes thoroughly disciplined. His powers and capacities are exceedingly
intensified. He realises that there is one underlying homogeneous essence,
a living truth, behind these names and forms. He is transmuted into
divinity. His whole nature gets transformed. He becomes one with the
Eternal. He beholds Brahman above, Brahman below, Brahman to the right,
Brahman to the left, Brahman in front, Brahman at the back, Brahman
within, Brahman without and Brahman pervading the whole world.
Dharma can be classified under two heads: (i) Samanya or the
general, universal Dharma and (ii) Visesha or the specific, personal
Dharma. Contentment, forgiveness, self-restraint, non-stealing, purity,
control of senses, discrimination between right and wrong, between the
real and the unreal, spiritual knowledge, truthfulness and absence of
anger come under the general or universal Dharma. The rules of the castes
and orders of life are specific Dharmas. These are the tenfold characteristics
of Dharma according to Manu.
Dharma assumes various kinds: Sanatana Dharma (Eternal Law), Samanya
Dharma (general duty), Visesha Dharma (special duty), Varnasrama Dharma
(duties of Caste and Order), Svadharma (one’s own duty), Yuga Dharma
(duty of the Age), Kula Dharma (duty of family), Manava Dharma (duty
of man), Purusha Dharma (duty of male), Stri Dharma (duty of female),
Raja Dharma (duty of king), Praja Dharma (duty of subjects), Pravritti
Dharma (duty in worldly life) and Nivritti Dharma (duty in spiritual
life).
Sanatana Dharma means the Eternal Religion, the Ancient Law. This is
based on the Vedas. This is the oldest of living religions. Hinduism
is known by the name Sanatana Dharma. What the Vedas alone declare to
be the means of attaining the summum bonum or the final emancipation,
is the Sanatana Dharma or Hindu Dharma.
The foundation of Sanatana Dharma is Sruti; Smritis are the walls;
the Itihasas and Purnas are the buttresses or supports. In ancient times,
the Srutis were learnt by heart. The teacher sang them to his pupils
and the pupils sang them after him. They were not written in book form.
All the sects, all the philosophical systems, appeal to the Sruti as
the final authority. The Smriti stands next in authority to the Sruti.
Hinduism stands unrivalled in the depth and grandeur of its philosophy.
Its ethical teachings are lofty, unique and sublime. It is highly flexible
and adapted to every human need. It is a perfect religion by itself.
It is not in need of anything from any other religion. No other religion
has produced so many great saints, great patriots, great warriors and
great Pativratas. The more you know of it, the more you will honour
and love it. The more you study it, the more it will enlighten you and
satisfy your heart.
India—The Home Of Religions
The religious history of the world tells us that from time immemorial,
India has been the home of great sages, seers and Rishis. All the grand
religious ideals that have moulded the character of men, the loftiest
of ethics and morality that have raised human beings to magnanimous
heights of divine splendour and all the sublime truths of spirituality
that have made men divine and have moulded the spiritual ideals of nations
and saviours of mankind, first arose in India. The spiritual horizon
of India has always been illumined with the glory of the self-effulgent
sun of wisdom of the Upanishads. Whenever there was any upheaval in
any part of the world, the origin of this could be traced to the wave
of spirituality caused by the birth of a great soul—a special manifestation
of Divinity—in some part of India.
Hindus have had a culture, civilisation and religion millennia older
than those of any other country or people. God did speak to the world
through India’s Rishis, Yogins, Mahatmas, Alvars, prophets, Acharyas,
Sannyasins and saints. Their teachings and Puranas are really inspired.
God is the one Light and Truth from whom emanate the teachings of all
faiths.
India is the home and abode of religions. It occupies the proud first
place in religious devotion and godliness. It is famous for its Yogins
and saints. The goal of India is Self-realisation or attainment of God-consciousness,
through renunciation. The history of India is a history of religion.
Its social code and regulations are founded upon religion. Minus its
Yoga, religion and its regulations, India will not be what it has been
for millennia. Some Hindus are still not aware of the distinguishing
features of Sanatana Dharma. If every Hindu knew and understood what
Hinduism is, the Hindus of today would all be gods on this earth.
May you all be endowed with the knowledge of Sanatana Dharma! May you
all endeavour to protect the Eternal Dharma! May the secrets of Sanatana
Dharma be revealed unto you all, like a fruit in the palm of your hand,
through the Grace of the Lord! May the blessings of Rishis be upon you
all! Glory to the Vedas and Sanatana Dharma! Glory to Brahman, the source
for all Vedas and Sanatana Dharma!
Every religion has a generic form or Samanya-Rupa and a specific
form or Visesha-Rupa. The general form remains eternally the
same. It is never changed by any circumstance whatsoever. It is not
affected at all by changes of time, place, surroundings and individual
differences. This aspect of religion is called Sanatana or eternal.
That which changes according to the change of time, place and surrounding
circumstances is the external aspect or ritual, of Dharma.
Samanya Dharma is the general Dharma or law for all men. Varnasrama
Dharmas are special Dharmas which are to be practised by particular
castes and by men in particular stages of life. The Samanya Dharmas
must be practised by all, irrespective of distinctions of Varna and
Asrama, creed or colour. Goodness is not the property of any one class,
creed, sect or community. Every man should possess this virtue.
Fundamentals Of Dharma
THE VISHNU SAMHITA enumerates forgiveness, truthfulness, control of
the mind, purity, practice of charity, control of the senses, non-violence,
service of the Guru, visiting places of pilgrimage, compassion, simplicity,
absence of greed, worship of the gods and the Brahmanas, and absence
of malice as the ingredients of Samanya Dharma, the general law for
all men.
THE MAHABHARATA enumerates the performance of Sraaddha or offering
oblations to the forefathers, religious austerity, truth, restraint
of anger, satisfaction with one’s own wife, purity, learning, absence
of envy, knowledge of the Self and forbearance as the fundamentals of
Dharma.
It is said in PADMA PURANA that Dharma proceeds from continence, truthfulness,
austerity, charity, self-control, forbearance, purity, non-violence,
serenity and non-thieving and that one should recognise Dharma by these
ten factors. According to this Purana, bestowing gifts on deserving
persons, fixing one’s thoughts on Lord Krishna, adoration of one’s
parents, offering a portion of the daily meal to all creatures and giving
a morsel of food to a cow are the characteristics of Dharma.
According to MATSYA PURANA, freedom from malice, absence of covetousness,
control of the senses, austerity, celibacy, compassion, truthfulness,
forbearance and fortitude constitute the fundamentals of Sanatana Dharma.
PATANJALI MAHARSHI, the exponent of Raja Yoga philosophy, recommends
that ten virtues should be practised by all men. The first five are:
Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Brahmacharya (celibacy
in thought, word and deed), Asteya (non-stealing) and Aparigraha (non-covetousness).
These constitute Yama or self-restraint. The other five virtues are:
Saucha (internal and external purity), Santosha (contentment), Tapas
(austerity), Svadhyaya (study of scriptures or recitation of Mantra)
and Isvara-pranidhana (consecration of the fruits of all works to the
Lord). These constitute Niyama or religious observance.
THE GITA enumerates the following virtues as Daivi-Sampat or divine
qualities: fearlessness, cleanness of life, steadfastness in the Yoga
of Wisdom, alms-giving, self-restraint, sacrifice, study of the scriptures,
austerity, straightforwardness, harmlessness, truth, absence of wrath,
renunciation, peacefulness, absence of crookedness, compassion to living
beings, non-covetousness, mildness, modesty, absence of fickleness,
vigour, forgiveness, fortitude, purity and absence of envy and pride.
All these virtues are manifestations of the four fundamental virtues:
(i) non-violence, (ii) truth, (iii) purity and (iv) self-control. All
the above virtues come under the above four cardinal virtues. The virtues
that are enumerated under the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism and the
virtues prescribed by Lord Jesus in his Sermon on the Mount, also come
under the above fundamental virtues.
The development of the divine qualities is indispensable for the attainment
of Self-realisation. Brahman or the Eternal is purity. The Eternal cannot
be attained without the attainment of purity. Brahman is truth. The
Eternal cannot be attained without practising truth. Brahman is fearlessness.
The Eternal cannot be attained unless you become absolutely fearless.
Attachment to the body causes fear and Dehadhyasa. If only you become
fearless, then the identification with the body will vanish.
You have rendered the heart harder than flint, steel or diamond through
greed, miserliness, harshness and rudeness. You can soften it only through
the practice of mercy, sympathy, charity, generosity, magnanimity, harmlessness,
mildness, disinterested action and untiring service of the poor. You
have made the heart crooked and narrow through hypocrisy, untruthfulness,
backbiting and talebearing. You can expand it through the practice of
straightforwardness, truthfulness, cleanness of life, alms-giving and
non-covetousness. You have rendered the heart impure through lust. You
can purify it through the practice of celibacy in thought, word and
deed.
Non violence
Ahimsa or non-violence is the most important virtue. That is the reason
why Patanjali Maharshi has placed it first in Yama. Practice of Ahimsa
must be in thought, word and deed. Practice of Ahimsa is not impotence
or cowardice or weakness. It is the highest type of heroism. The practice
demands immense patience, forbearance and endurance, infinite inner
spiritual strength and gigantic will-power.
Ahimsa is a modification or expression of truth only. Satyam and Ahimsa
always go together. He who is established in Ahimsa can move the whole
world. In his presence, all hostilities vanish; lion and cow, cobra
and mongoose, live together peacefully.
Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism lay great stress on Ahimsa. Lord Jesus
also has emphasised much on Ahimsa in his Sermon on the Mount. He says:
“If anyone beats you on one cheek, show him the other cheek also.”
He who is firmly established in Ahimsa can hope to attain Self-realisation.
He who practises Ahimsa develops cosmic love to a maximum degree. Practice
of Ahimsa eventually leads to realisation of oneness or unity of Self.
Such a man only can attain self-restraint. Retaliation—tooth for
tooth, blow for blow—is the maxim, doctrine or principle of an
Asura or a man of diabolic nature. This belongs to the beastly nature.
To return good for evil is divine. Constant vigilance and alertness
are needed in the practice of Ahimsa. If you are careless even a bit,
you will be carried away by the force of previous wrong Samskaras and
impulses and will become a victim of Himsa, despite your good intentions.
Truth
Brahman is Sat or Existence-Absolute. Truth must be observed in thought,
word and deed. If you are established in truth, all other virtues will
cling to you by themselves. Harischandra sacrificed everything for the
sake of truth. He lives still in our hearts. Yudhishthira was also devoted
to truth. There is no virtue higher than truth. Practice of truth and
Ahimsa constitute the crown and glory of ethical life. In the Taittiriya
Upanishad, the preceptor says in his convocation address to the students:
“Satyam vada—Speak the truth.” The world is rooted
in truth. Dharma is rooted in truth. All religions are rooted in truth.
Honesty, justice, straightforwardness and sincerity are only modifications
or expressions of truth.
Purity
Purity comprises both external purity and internal purity. Purity implies
both purity of body and purity of mind. Purity of body is only the preliminary
to purity of mind.
This body is the temple of God. It should be kept clean by daily bathing
and clean dress. Cleanliness is a part of godliness.
The restriction in diet is best calculated to make the mind pure. Food
exercises a direct influence on the mind.
Sattvic food makes the mind pure. Purity of food leads to purity of
mind. Mind is only made up of the fine essence of food. As the food
is, so is the mind.
You must be pure in thought, word and deed. Your heart must be as pure
as crystal or the Himalayan snow. Then only the divine light will descend.
Purity comprises such virtues as frankness, innocence, straightforwardness
and absence of all evil thoughts. He who is endowed with purity will
find it easy to tread the spiritual path.
Self-control
You must have perfect self-control or self-mastery. Self-control implies
both control of the body and control of the mind. Self-control does
not mean self-torture. You must lead a well-regulated and disciplined
life. You must keep all the senses under your perfect control. The senses
are like turbulent and wild horses. This body is like a chariot. Mind
is the reins. Intellect is the driver. The Atman is the Lord of the
chariot. If the senses are not kept under proper control, they will
throw this chariot into a deep abyss. You will come to ruin. He who
keeps the reins firm and drives this chariot intelligently by controlling
the horses (senses), will reach the destination (Moksha or the Abode
of Eternal Bliss) safely.
Self-control implies self-sacrifice, annihilation of egoism, patience,
endurance, forbearance and humility. Overcome Raga or attachment by
Vairagya or dispassion. Dispassion will dawn in your mind if you look
into the defects of sensual life such as birth, death, disease, old
age, pain, sorrow, etc. (Mithya-Drishti and Dosha-Drishti). Overcome
anger and hatred by Kshama or forgiveness, love and selfless service.
Overcome evil by good. Return good for evil. Overcome lust by the practice
of Brahmacharya and regular Japa and meditation. Conquer greed by charity,
generosity and disinterested actions. Conquer pride by humility and
delusion by discrimination and enquiry. Overcome jealousy by magnanimity,
Atma-bhava and nobility. Conquer egoism by self-sacrifice, self-surrender,
self-abnegation and meditation on the non-dual, eternal, self-luminous
Brahman, the innermost Self, the Inner Ruler, the Immortal.
May you all attain eternal bliss and immortality through the practice
of the cardinal virtues or the fundamental Dharma.
The principle of Varnasrama Dharma is one of the basic principles of
Hinduism. The Varnasrama system is peculiar to Hindus. It is a characteristic
feature of Hinduism. It is also prevalent throughout the world according
to Guna-Karma (aptitude and conduct), though there is no such distinct
denomination of this kind, elsewhere.
The duties of the castes are Varna Dharma. The four castes are Brahmana,
Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra. The duties of the stages in life are Asrama
Dharma. The four Asramas or orders of life are Brahmacharya, Grihastha,
Vanaprastha and Sannyasa.
The Principle
Human society is like a huge machine. The individuals and communities
are like its parts. If the parts are weak and broken, the machine will
not work. A machine is nothing without its parts. The human body also
can work efficiently if its parts and organs are in sound and strong
condition. If there is pain in any part of the body, if there is disease
in any organ or part of the body, this human machine will go out of
order. It will not perform its usual function or work.
So is the case with the human society. Every individual should perform
his duties efficiently. The Hindu Rishis and sages formed an ideal scheme
of society and an ideal way of individual life, which is known by the
name Varnasrama Dharma. Hinduism is built on Varnasrama Dharma. The
structure of the Hindu society is based on Varnasrama Dharma. Observance
of Varnasrama Dharma helps one’s growth and self-evolution. It
is very indispensable. If the rules are violated, the society will soon
perish.
The aim of Varnasrama Dharma is to promote the development of the universal,
eternal Dharma. If you defend Dharma, it will defend you. If you destroy
it, it will destroy you. Therefore, never destroy your Dharma. This
principle holds true of the individual as much as of the nation. It
is Dharma alone which keeps a nation alive. Dharma is the very soul
of man. Dharma is the very soul of a nation also.
In the West and in the whole world also, there is Varnasrama, though
it is not rigidly observed there. Some Western philosophers have made
a division of three classes, viz., philosophers, warriors and masses.
The philosophers correspond to the Brahmanas, warriors to Kshatriyas
and the masses to Vaisyas and Sudras. This system is indispensable to
keep the society in a state of perfect harmony and order.
The Four Castes
In Purusha-Sukta of the Rig-Veda, there is reference to the division
of Hindu society into four classes. It is described there that the Brahmanas
came out of the face of the Lord, the Creator, Kshatriyas from His arms,
Vaisyas from His thighs, and the Sudras from His feet.
This division is according to the Guna and Karma. Guna (quality) and
Karma (kind of work) determine the caste of a man. This is supported
by Lord Krishna in the Gita, also. He says in the Gita: “The four
castes were emanated by Me, by the different distribution of qualities
and actions. Know Me to be the author of them, though the actionless
and inexhaustible” (Ch. IV-13).
There are three qualities or Gunas, viz., Sattva (purity), Rajas
(passion) and Tamas (inertia). Sattva is white, Rajas is
red and Tamas is black. These three qualities are found in man in varying
proportions. Sattva preponderates in some persons. They are Brahmanas.
They are wise persons or thinkers. They are the priests, ministers or
philosophers who guide kings or rulers. In some, Rajas is predominant.
They are Kshatriyas. They are warriors or men of action. They fight
with the enemies or invaders and defend the country. In some, Tamas
is predominant. They are Vaisyas or traders. They do business and agriculture
and amass wealth. Sudras are the servants. None of these qualities is
highly developed in them. They serve the other three castes.
In a broad sense, a Sattvic man, who is pious and virtuous and leads
the divine life, is a Brahmana, a Rajasic man with heroic quality is
a Kshatriya, a Rajasic man with business tendencies is a Vaisya and
a Tamasic man is a Sudra. Hitler and Mussolini were Kshatriyas. Ford
was a Vaisya.
Serenity, self-restraint, austerity, purity, forgiveness, and also,
uprightness, knowledge, Realisation and belief in God are the duties
of the Brahmanas, born of (their own) nature. Prowess, splendour, firmness,
dexterity, and also, not flying from battle, generosity and lordliness
are the duties of the Kshatriyas, born of (their own) nature. Agriculture,
cattle-rearing and trade are the duties of the Vaisyas, born of (their
own) nature. And action consisting of service is the duty of the Sudras,
born of (their own) nature.
The Law of Spiritual Economics
The underlying principle in caste system or Varna Dharma, is division
of labour. Rishis studied human nature carefully. They came to the conclusion
that all men were not equally fit for all kinds of work. Hence, they
found it necessary to allocate different kinds of duties to different
classes of people, according to their aptitude, capacity or quality.
The Brahmanas were in charge of spiritual and intellectual affairs.
The work of political administration and defence was given to the Kshatriyas.
The Vaisyas were entrusted with the duty of supplying food for the nation
and administering its economic welfare. The Sudras did menial work.
The Rishis felt all these needs of the Hindu nation and started the
system of Varnas and Asramas.
This division of labour began in Vedic times. The Vedas taught that
the Brahmana was the brain of the society, the Kshatriya its arms, the
Vaisya its stomach, and the Sudra its feet.
There was a quarrel between the senses, the mind and the Prana as to
who was superior. There was a quarrel amongst the different organs and
the stomach. If the hands quarrel with the stomach; the entire body
will suffer. When Prana departed from the body, all the organs suffered.
The head or stomach cannot claim its superiority over the feet and hands.
The hands and feet are as much important as the stomach or head. If
there is quarrel between the different castes as to which is superior,
then the entire social fabric will suffer. There will be disharmony,
rupture and discord. A scavenger and a barber are as much important
as a minister for the running of the society. The social edifice is
built on the law of spiritual economics. It has nothing to do with superiority
or inferiority. Each class contributes its best to the common weal or
world-solidarity. There is no question of higher and lower here.
Character Determines Caste
A Brahmana is no Brahmana if he is not endowed with purity and good
character, and if he leads a life of dissipation and immorality. A Sudra
is a Brahmana if he leads a virtuous and pious life. What a great soul
was Vidura! What a noble, candid, straightforward student was Satyakama
Jabala of Chhandogya Upanishad! Caste is a question of character. Varna
is no more the colour of the skin, but the colour of one’s character
or quality. Conduct and character count and not lineage alone. If one
is Brahmana by birth and, at the same time, if he possesses the virtues
of a Brahmana, it is extremely good, because certain virtuous qualifications
only determine the birth of a Brahmana.
Use and Abuse of the Caste System
The Hindus have survived many a foreign conquest on account of their
caste system. But they have developed class jealousies and hatred in
the name of the caste system. They have not got the spirit of co-operation.
That is the reason why they are weak and disunited today. They have
become sectarians in the name of the caste system. Hence there is degradation
in India.
The caste system is, indeed, a splendid thing. It is quite flawless.
But the defect came in from somewhere else. The classes gradually neglected
their duties. The test of ability and character slowly vanished. Birth
became the chief consideration in determining castes. All castes fell
from their ideals and forgot all about their duties. Brahmanas became
selfish and claimed superiority over others by mere birth, without possessing
due qualifications. The Kshatriyas lost their chivalry and spirit of
sacrifice. The Vaisyas became very greedy. They did not earn wealth
by honest means. They did not look after the economic welfare of the
people. They did not give charity. They also lost the spirit of sacrifice.
Sudras gave up service. They became officers. They wished that others
should serve them. The greed and pride of man have created discord and
disharmony.
There is nothing wrong in Varnasrama. It is arrogance and haughtiness
in men that have brought troubles. Man or the little Jiva is imperfect.
He is full of defects. He is simply waiting for claiming superiority
over others. The Brahmana thinks that the other three castes are inferior
to him. The Kshatriya thinks that the Vaisya and Sudra are inferior
to him. A rich Sudra thinks that he is superior to a poor Brahmana or
a poor Kshatriya or Vaisya.
At the present moment, the Varnasrama system exists in name only. It
has to be rebuilt properly. Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras,
who have fallen from their ideals and who are not doing their respective
duties, must do their respective duties properly. They must be educated
on right lines. They must raise themselves to their original lofty level.
The sectarian spirit must die. They should develop a new understanding
heart of love and devotion, with a spirit of co-operation, sacrifice
and service.
The Four Asramas
There are four Asramas or stages in life, viz., Brahmacharya
or the period of studentship, Grihastha or the stage of the householder,
Vanaprastha or the stage of the forest-dweller or hermit, and Sannyasa
or the life of renunciation or asceticism. Each stage has its own duties.
These stages help the evolution of man. The four Asramas take man to
perfection by successive stages. The practice of the four Asramas regulates
the life from the beginning to the end. The first two Asramas pertain
to Pravritti Marga or the path of work and the two later stages—the
life of Vanaprastha and that of Sannyasa—are the stages of withdrawal
from the world. They pertain to Nivritti Marga or the path of renunciation.
Towards Orderly Spiritual Evolution
Life is very systematically and orderly arranged in Sanatana Dharma.
There is opportunity for the development of the different sides of human
activity. Due occupations and training are assigned to each period of
life. Life is a great school in which the powers, capacities and faculties
of man are to be evolved gradually.
Every man should pass through the different Asramas regularly. He should
not enter any stage of life prematurely. He can enter the next stage,
only when each has been completed. In nature, evolution is gradual.
It is not revolutionary.
Lord Manu says in his Smriti: “Having studied the Vedas or two
Vedas or even one Veda in due order without breaking celibacy, let him
dwell in the householder order. When the householder sees wrinkles in
his skin and whiteness in his hair and the son of his son, then let
him retire to the forest. Having passed the third portion of life in
the forests, let him, having abandoned attachments, wander as an ascetic
in the fourth portion of life.”
In extraordinary cases, however, some of the stages may be omitted.
Suka was a born Sannyasin. Sankara took Sannyasa without entering the
stage of a householder. In rare and exceptional cases, a student is
allowed to become a Sannyasin, his debts to the world having been fully
paid in a previous birth. Nowadays, young Sannyasins without qualification
are found in abundance. This is contrary to the ancient rules and causes
much trouble.
The Brahmacharin or the Celibate Student
The first stage, Brahmacharya, is the period of study and discipline.
The student should not indulge in any pleasures. He stays in the house
of his preceptor and studies the Vedas and the sciences. This is the
period of probation. The teachers in ancient India usually lived in
forest hermitages. These hermitages were the Gurukulas or forest universities.
The student begged his food. The children of the rich and poor lived
together. The student regarded his teacher as his spiritual father and
served him with faith, devotion and reverence.
The life of the student begins with the Upanayana ceremony, his second
birth. He must be hardy and simple in his habits. He rises early, bathes
and does Sandhya and Gayatri Japa. He studies scriptures. He takes simple
food in moderation and takes plenty of exercise. He sleeps on a hard
mat and does not use soft beds and pillows. He is humble and obedient.
He serves and respects elders. He attempts to be chaste in thought,
word and deed.
He ever engages himself in doing services to his preceptor. He refrains
from wine, meat, perfumes, garlands, tasty and savoury dishes, women,
acids, spices and injury to sentient creatures; from lust, anger, greed;
dancing, singing and playing on musical instruments; from dice-playing,
gossip, slander and untruth. He sleeps alone.
After the end of his student career, he gives a present to his preceptor
according to his ability and returns home to enter the household life.
The preceptor gives the final instruction and sends the student home.
The teacher delivers a convocation address to the students at the conclusion
of their studentship:
“Speak the truth. Do your duty. Never swerve from the study of
the Veda. Do not cut off the line of progeny (after giving the preceptor
the fee he desires). Never swerve away from truth. Never swerve from
duty. Never neglect your welfare. Never neglect your prosperity. Never
neglect the study and the teaching of the Vedas.
“Never swerve from the duties to the gods and the forefathers.
Regard your mother as a god (Matridevo Bhava). Regard your father
as a god (Pitridevo Bhava). Regard your teacher as a god (Acharyadevo
Bhava). Regard your guest as god (Atithidevo Bhava). Let
only those actions that are free from blemishes be done and not others.
Only those that are good acts to us should be performed by you and not
others.
“You should remove the fatigue of Brahmanas who are superior to
you by serving them with seats, etc. Gift should be given with faith,
in plenty, with modesty and sympathy. If there be any doubt regarding
rites or conduct, then look up to the lives of great men and follow
their examples. This is the injunction. This is the teaching. This is
the secret of the Vedas. This is God’s word of command. This should
be observed. Thus is this to be meditated upon.”
The Grihastha or the Householder
The second stage is that of the Grihastha or householder. The household
stage is entered at marriage, when the student has completed his studentship
and is ready to take up the duties and responsibilities of householder
life. Of all the Asramas, this is the most important, because it supports
all the others. As all creatures live supported by the air, so the other
Orders exist supported by the householder. As all streams and rivers
flow to rest in the ocean, so all the Asramas flow to rest in the householder.
The Grihastha is the very heart of Aryan life. Everything depends on
him.
Marriage is a sacrament for a Hindu. The wife is his partner in life.
She is his Ardhangini. He cannot do any religious ritual without her.
She stands by his left side when he performs any religious performance.
Husband and wife keep Rama and Sita as their ideal.
A householder should earn money by honest means and distribute it in
the proper manner. He should spend one-tenth of his income in charity.
He should enjoy sensual pleasures within the limits of the moral law.
A householder is permitted to enjoy conjugal happiness on one night
in a month.
The householder should perform the Pancha Maha Yajnas. The five Yajnas
are:
DEVA-YAJNA—offering oblations unto Devas, with recitation of Vedic
Mantras.
RISHI-YAJNA—study of Vedas and teaching of Vedas to students,
and offering of oblations to Rishis.
PITRI-YAJNA—Tarpana or ablutions to departed souls and Sraaddha
or annual religious rites performed for departed souls.
BHUTA-YAJNA—distribution of food to cows, crows and animals in
general.
ATITHI-YAJNA—giving food to guests and honouring them.
Hospitality is one of the householder’s chief duties. He must
ever feed first his guests, Brahmanas and his relatives, and then he
and his wife should eat.
When the householder sees that his sons are able to bear the burden
of his duties, when his grandsons are around him, he should know that
the time has come for him and his wife to retire from the world and
spend their time in study and meditation.
The Vanaprastha or the Recluse
The next stage is that of the Varnaprastha. Brahmacharya is a preparation
for the life of the householder. Even so, Vanaprastha is a preparation
for the final stage of Sannyasa. After discharging all the duties of
a householder, he should retire to the forest or a solitary country
place and begin to meditate in solitude on higher spiritual things.
He is now free from social bonds and the responsibilities of life. He
has ample time for study of scriptures. His wife may go with him or
remain with her sons.
The Sannyasin or the Renunciate
The next stage is that of a Sannyasin. When a man becomes a Sannyasin,
he renounces all possessions, all distinctions of caste, all rites and
ceremonies and all attachments to any particular country, nation, or
religion. He lives alone and spends his time in meditation. He lives
on alms. When he attains the sublime state of deep meditation he rejoices
in his own Self. He is quite indifferent to sensual pleasures. He is
free from likes and dislikes, desires, egoism, lust, anger, greed and
pride. He has equal vision and balanced mind. He loves all. He roams
about happily and disseminates Brahma Jnana or Knowledge of the Self.
He is the same in honour and dishonour, praise and censure, success
and failure. He is now Ativarnasrami, i.e., above Varna and Asrama.
He is quite a free man. He is not bound by any social customs and conventions.
Such a Sannyasin is an ideal man. He has attained perfection and freedom.
He is Brahman Himself. He is a Jivanmukta or a liberated sage. Glory
to such exalted personages who are living Gods on earth!
Asrama Dharma Under Modern Conditions
At the present moment, the Asramas cannot be exactly lived according
to the details of the ancient rules, as the conditions have changed
very much; but, they may be revived in their spirit, to the great improvement
of modern life. In these stages, no one should do the duty of another.
The student or Brahmachari should not do the duties of a householder,
a recluse or a Sannyasin. The householder must not perform the duties
of a Brahmacharin, Vanaprastha or a Sannyasin. A Sannyasin should not
seek again the joys of the householder.
Peace and order will prevail in society, only if and when all people
do their respective duties efficiently. The abolition of Varnas and
Asramas will cut at the very root of social duties. How can the nation
hope to live when Varnasrama Dharma is not rigidly practised?
The students of schools, and colleges should lead a life of purity
and simple living. The householder should lead the life of an ideal
Grihastha. He should practise self-restraint, mercy, tolerance, non-injury,
truthfulness and moderation in everything. Those who find it difficult
to lead the life of the third and the fourth Asramas should, remaining
in either of the other two Asramas, gradually withdraw themselves from
worldly life and practise selfless service, study and meditation.
The Highest State
Varnasrama pertains to body alone, but not to the pure, all-pervading,
immortal soul or Atman. Attain Knowledge of the Self and become an Ativarnasrami
like Lord Dattatreya. Hear what he says:—
Mahadadi jagat sarvam
Na kinchit pratibhati me
Brahmaiva kevalam sarvam
Katham varnasramasthitih
“The whole world, from Mahat downwards, does not shine in Me.
Everything is Brahman only. Where then is Varnasrama?”
May you all have comprehensive understanding of Varnasrama Dharma!
May you all develop universal love and brotherhood! May all barriers
which are made by man for his own self-aggrandisement and self-assertion
and which create discord and disunion, be broken asunder!
In Satya-Yuga or the golden age there was a different set of Dharmas
or laws; in Treta, they changed into another form; in Dvapara, the Dharmas
were different from the Dharmas of other Yugas; and in Kali-Yuga, they
assumed still another form. The Dharma changes according to the changes
of the cycles. Man is undergoing change. His nature gets transformed
through experiences. Hence, his external form of Dharmas also should
change.
That which is achieved through contemplation in Satya Yuga, through
sacrifices in Treta Yuga, and through the worship of Lord Hari in Dvapara
Yuga, may be attained through Kirtana or loud chanting of Lord Vishnu’s
Name in Kali Yuga or Iron age.
In the Satya Yuga, the mind of men was generally pure. They had no
distraction of the mind. There were neither cinemas, nor hotels, nor
dancing halls and similar other distractions. Hence, meditation was
easy and natural for them. That is the reason why contemplation has
been prescribed for men of Satya Yuga. In the Treta Yuga, materials
for the performance of Yajnas or sacrifices were easily available. The
people had active tendencies. Therefore it was easy for them to perform
Agnihotra, Jyotistoma, Darsa-Paurnimas and other Yajnas. That is the
reason why Yajna has been described as the external form of Sanatana
Dharma in that age. In the Dvapara Yuga, there was the manifestation
of Avataras and men could easily have direct worship of God. Hence,
worship was prescribed as the principal form of Sadhana in that age.
In the Kali Yuga, there are many distractions for the mind. People lack
in Brahmacharya, strength of will and power of enquiry or rational investigation.
It is very difficult to procure materials for the performance of sacrifices.
Therefore, Hari Kirtana or loud chanting of the Divine Name and selfless
service of humanity have been recommended as the principal forms of
Sadhana.
Follow your Dharma with zeal and enthusiasm. Discharge your duties
faithfully. Develop all the virtues which constitute Dharma. Never deviate
an inch from the path of righteousness. Stick to Dharma with all your
heart, with all your mind and with all your soul. Performance of one’s
duties brings happiness, quick evolution and freedom. You will soon
attain immortality, eternal bliss, supreme peace, perennial joy, absolute
freedom and perfection. Glory to Dharma, the supreme light that leads
you to the kingdom of eternal bliss and everlasting peace.
May the eternal Dharma of Hinduism be preserved for ever! May all Hindus
be consolidated by the bond of true love!!
CHAPTER 4
The mark of Dharma is Achara or good conduct. Achara
is the mark of the good. From Achara is Dharma born. Dharma enhances
life. Man attains prosperity and fame, here and hereafter, through the
practice of Dharma.
Good conduct is the highest Dharma. It is the root of all Tapas or
austerities. Righteousness, truth and good works, power and prosperity—all
originate from conduct.
Man wills to obtain his objects of desires. Willing results in action.
This is called conduct. Conduct is behaviour. The will that is expressed
becomes conduct.
Man has various sorts of desires. Sometimes, there is conflict of desires.
That desire which obtains victory is termed ‘will’. The inner
disposition which makes the will possible is called character. Character
is the aggregate of peculiar qualities which constitute personal individuality.
External behaviour is not always a sure guide in judging the character
of a man.
Morality or ethics is the science of conduct. Ethics is the study of
what is right or good in conduct. Ethical science shows the way in which
human beings should behave towards one another, as well as towards other
creatures. It contains systematised principles on which a man should
act. Ethics is right conduct or Sadachara.
We have human morality, family morality, social morality, national
morality, professional morality, etc. A doctor has his professional
ethics. He should not divulge to others the secrets of his patients.
It is his duty to take all precautionary hygienic measures to stop the
spread of an epidemic disease and direct his earnest attention towards
public health and hygiene.
Ethics is a relative science. What is good for one man may not be good
for another man. What is good at one time and at one place may not be
good at another time and at another place. Ethics is relative to the
man himself and to his surroundings.
Without ethics, you cannot have progress in the spiritual path. Ethics
is the foundation of Yoga. Ethics is the corner-stone of Vedanta. Ethics
is the strong pillar on which the edifice of Bhakti Yoga rests. Ethics
is the gateway to God-realisation.
Without ethical perfection, no spiritual progress or realisation is
possible. A Yogic student or aspirant must be strictly ethical. He must
be truthful and pure in thought, word and deed. He must possess excellent
conduct. He must not injure any living being in thought, word and deed.
He must practise rigidly right thought, right speech and right action.
Every religion has its ethics. The Sermon on the Mount of Jesus and
the Ten Commandments contain ethical teachings for the uplift of man.
The Noble Eightfold Path of the Buddha is the essence of ethics. The
Yamas and Niyamas of Patanjali Maharshi constitute the highest ethics.
Manu Smriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti and Parasara Smriti contain the code
of conduct for man. The three kinds of austerity of the Gita are nothing
but ethics in an intensified form.
Morality is the gateway to religion. He who leads a moral or virtuous
life attains freedom, perfection or Moksha.
Practice of ethics will help you to live in harmony with your neighbours,
friends, your own family members, fellow-beings and other people. It
will confer on you lasting happiness and Moksha. It will purify your
heart. It will keep your conscience ever clean. A moral man who follows
strictly the principles of ethics will not deviate even a fraction of
an inch from the path of Dharma or righteousness. Yudhishthira had earned
an undying reputation for his practice of ethics. He was an embodiment
of Dharma. Hence he still lives in our hearts.
Good conduct is the root of material and spiritual prosperity. Conduct
increases fame. It is good conduct which prolongs life and destroys
all calamities and evils and brings eternal happiness. It is good conduct
that begets virtue. Therefore develop good conduct.
Hindu ethics is superb. Hinduism lays great emphasis on ethical discipline.
Yama (self-restraint) and Niyama (religious observances or canons) are
the foundations of Yoga and Vedanta.
Undeveloped persons cannot think for themselves. Hence rules of conduct
have been laid down by great sages or seers like Manu and Sage Yajnavalkya.
Lord Krishna says in the Gita: “Let the scriptures be thy authority
in determining what ought to be done or what ought not to be done. Knowing
what hath been declared by the ordinances of the scriptures, thou oughtest
to work in this world” (Ch. XVI-24). The Smritis written by Yajnavalkya,
Manu and other sages distinctly prescribe the rules of conduct. As you
have not got the power nor the time to think of the moral principles
and rules given in the scriptures, you can get them from the sages and
saints and follow them to the very letter.
The ethics of the Hindus is subtle, sublime and profound. All religions
have taught ethical precepts such as: “Do not kill, do not injure
others, love your neighbour as your self,” but they have not given
the reason. The basis of Hindu ethics is this: “There is one all-pervading
Atman. It is the innermost soul of all beings. This is the common, pure
consciousness. If you injure your neighbour, you really injure yourself.
If you injure any other creature, you really injure yourself, because
the whole world is nothing but your own Self.” This is Hindu ethics.
This is the basic metaphysical truth that underlies all Hindu ethical
codes.
The Atman or Self is one. One life vibrates in all beings. Life is
common in animals, birds and human beings. Existence is common. This
is the emphatic declaration of the Upanishads or Srutis. This primary
truth of religion is the foundation of ethics or morality or science
of right conduct. Morality has Vedanta as its basis.
The first thing you learn from religion is the unity of all selves.
The Upanishads says: “The neighbour is, in truth, the very Self
and what separates you from him is mere illusion.” One Atman or
Self abides in all beings. Universal love is the expression of the unity.
Universal brotherhood has its basis in the unity of Self. All human
relations exist because of this unity. Yajnavalkya said to his wife
Maitreyi: “Behold, my dear, not indeed for the love of the husband
is the husband dear, for the love of the Self is the husband dear.”
And so with wife, sons, property, friends, worlds and even the Devas
themselves. All are dear, because the one Self is in all. If you injure
another man, you injure yourself. If you help another person, you help
yourself. There is one life, one common consciousness in all beings.
This is the foundation of right conduct. This is the foundation of ethics.
A philanthropist donates big sums to social institutions. He regards
this as some kind of social service only. That is all. He has not got
the Bhava or mental attitude, that the whole world is a manifestation
of the Lord and that he is serving the Lord. He has not got the Bhava
that the Lord is working through his instruments or senses, that
every act is an offering unto the Lord, and that every deed is a Yogic
activity.
In India, dinner is prepared for five hundred persons even when two
hundred persons are invited. Feeding is worship of Narayana or the Lord,
for a Hindu. It is Atithi-Yajna or sacred sacrifice. A Hindu
regards every creature as the Lord.
The Hindus are very generous, noble, large-hearted, charitable, God-fearing,
sympathetic, merciful and hospitable. If they see a hungry man in the
street, they will take him to their house, treat him as Atithi-Narayana
(God in the form of guest), feed him first and then take their food.
Nowhere in the world you will hear of such a treatment. You cannot get
even a morsel of food free in other countries.
A Hindu believes that if he feeds a single sage or a Mahatma, he is
feeding the whole world, because he has realised that a realised sage
is identical with the whole Virat or Brahman and is one with all beings
of the entire universe. Hindu ethics is based on the sublime philosophy
of Vedanta which propounds the doctrine of oneness of life and unity
of consciousness. Ethics or morality and doing good to others, is the
manifestation of this oneness. A Hindu distributes food to the crows,
dogs, cows and fish first before he takes his food. He tries to recognise
the one Atman that is hidden in all these forms. He endeavours to become
one with the Universal Being. He knows that in loving others he loves
himself and in injuring others he injures himself. Through the practice
of cosmic love he feels that all bodies are his, all hands are his,
all feet are his and that the whole world is his home (Vasudhaiva
Kutumbakam). Gradually he becomes one with the soul of the universe
and one with the Oversoul also. Hindu ethics leads eventually to Self-realisation.
Ethics is a means to Yoga.
The very root and core of all moral discipline is mental purification
through refraining from all evil action and the active practice of virtue.
Do good at all times. Ahimsa, Satya and Brahmacharya symbolise
the three processes of avoiding sin, sticking to virtue and Self-purification.
All harm arises out of man’s egoism. The ego manifests itself
as ambition, desire and lust. Under their influence man indulges in
hatred, love, flattery, pride, unscrupulousness, hypocrisy and delusion.
To eradicate egoism arising out of Deha-Abhimana (body-idea),
think constantly on the foulness and perishability of the body and the
pains arising out of the senses. Reject them as evil and mentally rise
above them. Dwell upon that which is desirable, elevating and divine.
Improper action—thoughtless action without discrimination—gives
rise to all misery. To get freedom from misery, the noble path of virtue—Sadachara—is
to be followed. Rigidly observe truth and purity in your thoughts, speech,
actions, inner motive and general conduct. Be loving, tolerant and charitable
in your opinion of men and things and in your dealings with others.
In every sphere, the individual should strive to adhere to these qualities
and to manifest them. Thus, this ideal is to be practised between parents
and children, elders and youngsters, teacher and pupil, friend and friend,
Guru and disciple, leader and follower, subject and ruler, and nation
and nation.
You must proceed along the path of virtue. Be determined never to swerve
even an inch from Dharma. The mind has to be carefully trained and the
will should be developed and strengthened. Therefore much importance
has been laid by the ancients upon Yama, Niyama and Shat-Sampat (six
treasures of virtue). The mind and will must be exercised and disciplined
through deliberate acts of self-denial and self-sacrifice in everyday
life. Ethical culture, therefore, demands moral vigilance and right
exertion. The development of a sensitive conscience and positive admiration
for goodness and nobility plays a great part in ethical culture.
Everybody speaks: “This is right, that is wrong; you are right,
he is wrong;” but he cannot tell you exactly what he means by ‘right’
and ‘wrong’.
What is the criterion by which we judge an action to be right or wrong,
and good or bad? “Right and wrong” and “good and bad”
are relative terms. Right and wrong refer to the moral standard, as
law. Good and bad refer to it, as end. You will
have to adjust your conduct according to this moral standard. That which
is in accordance with a rule is right. That which is worthy of achievement
is good. Religion gives us the ultimate data upon which ethical science
may be built.
Relative Nature Of Right And Wrong
Right and wrong—Dharma and Adharma—are relative
terms. It is very difficult to define these terms precisely. Even sages
are bewildered sometimes in finding out what is right and what is wrong
in some special circumstances. That is the reason why Lord Krishna says
in the Gita: “What is action? What is inaction? Even the wise are
herein perplexed. Therefore I will declare to thee the action by knowing
which thou shalt be liberated from evil. It is needful to discriminate
action, to discriminate unlawful action, and to discriminate inaction;
mysterious is the path of action. He who seeth inaction in action and
action in inaction, he is wise among men; he is harmonious, even while
performing all actions” (Ch. IV-16, 17, 18).
Illustrations Of Right And Wrong
Right and wrong are always relative to the surrounding circumstances.
What is right in one situation is not right in another. Right and wrong
vary according to time, special circumstances, Varna (status
or class in society) and Asrama (order or stage of life). Morality
is a changing and relative term. That passionate man who molests his
legally married wife frequently to gratify his passion is more immoral
than a man who visits the house of his sister of ill-fame once in six
months. That man who dwells constantly on immoral thoughts is the most
immoral man. Do you clearly note the subtle difference now? To kill
an enemy is right for a Kshatriya king. A Brahmin or Sannyasin should
not kill anybody even for protecting himself during times of danger.
They should practise strict forbearance and forgiveness. To speak an
untruth to save the life of a Mahatma or one’s Guru, who has been
unjustly charged by the unjust officer of a state, is right. Untruth
has become a truth in this particular case. To speak a truth which brings
harm to many is untruth only. To kill a dacoit who murders the wayfarers
daily is Ahimsa only. Himsa becomes Ahimsa under certain circumstances.
Forgiveness or Kshama befits an ascetic or Sannyasin who leads
the life of Nivritti Marga or renunciation. It cannot befit a ruler.
The ruler may forgive one who has injured him, but he cannot forgive
one who has done the greatest harm to the public.
There are special Dharmas during critical, dangerous circumstances.
They are called Apad-Dharma. Rishi Visvamitra took forbidden meat from
a Chandala or outcaste when there was a severe famine, and offered this
in his sacrifice to the Devas. Ushasti, a learned sage, took the polluted
beans from the hands of an elephant-driver when the former was suffering
from acute hunger and when he was not able to get food from anyone else.
Indicators Of Right And Wrong
Rishi Kanada, author of the Vaiseshika system of philosophy, says in
the opening Sutra: “That which elevates you and brings you nearer
to God, is right. That which brings you down and takes you away from
God, is wrong. That which is done in strict accordance with the injunctions
of the scriptures is right and that which is done against their injunctions
is wrong.” This is one way of defining the terms ‘right’
and ‘wrong’. To work in accordance With the Divine Will is
right and to work in opposition to the Divine Will is wrong.
It is very difficult for the man in the street to find out what exactly
the Divine Will is, in certain actions. That is the reason why wise
sages declare that people should resort to Sastras, learned Pundits
and realised persons, for consultation. A pure man who has done Nishkama
Karma-Yoga for several years and who is doing worship of Isvara for
a long time, can readily find out the Divine Will when he wants to do
certain actions. He can hear the inner, shrill, silent voice. Ordinarily
people should not attempt to hear this Divine Voice, the Voice of the
Silence. They may mistake the voice of the impure mind for the Voice
of God. The lower instinctive mind will delude them.
Selfishness clouds understanding. Therefore, if a man has got even
a tinge of selfishness, he cannot detect what is right and wrong. A
very pure, subtle and sharp intellect is needed for this purpose. The
Bhagavad-Gita describes the nature of Sattvic reason, Rajasic reason
and Tamasic reason as follows: “That which knoweth energy and abstinence,
what ought to be done and what ought not to be done, fear and fearlessness,
bondage and liberation, that reason is pure, O Partha. That by which
one wrongly understandeth right and wrong, and also what ought to be
done and what ought not to be done, that reason, O Partha, is passionate.
That which is enwrapped in darkness, thinketh wrong to be right and
seeth all things subverted, that reason, O Partha, is of darkness”
(Ch. XVIII-30, 31, 32).
Various other definitions are given by wise men to help the students
in the path of righteousness. In the Bible it is said: “Do unto
others as you would be done by.” This is a very good maxim. The
whole gist of Sadachara or right conduct is here. If one practises this
very carefully, he will not commit any wrong act. Do not do to another
what is not good for yourself. Do not do any act which does not bring
good to another or which injures another and makes you feel ashamed
for it. Do that act which brings good to others and which is praiseworthy.
Do as you would be done by. Do unto others as you wish others should
do unto you. This is the secret of Dharma. This is the secret essence
of Karma Yoga. This is a brief description of what right conduct is.
This will lead you to the attainment of eternal bliss.
“Ahimsa Paramo Dharmah—non-injuring in thought, word
and deed is the highest of all virtues.” If one is well established
in Ahimsa in thought, word and deed, he can never do any wrong action.
That is the reason why Patanjali Maharshi has given Ahimsa great prominence
in his Raja Yoga philosophy. Ahimsa comes first in the practice of Yama
or self-restraint. To give happiness to others is right; to spread misery
and pain to others is wrong. One can follow this in his daily conduct
towards others and can evolve in his spiritual path. Do not perform
any act that brings to you shame and fear. You will be quite safe if
you follow this rule. Stick to any rule that appeals to your reason
and conscience and follow it with faith and attention. You will evolve
and reach the abode of eternal happiness.
That work which gives elevation, joy and peace to the mind is right
and that which brings depression, pain and restlessness to the mind
is wrong. This is an easy way to find out right and wrong.
That which helps you in your spiritual evolution is right and that
which obstructs and hinders your spiritual evolution is wrong. That
which leads to unity of self is right and that which leads to separation
is wrong. That which is in accordance with the injunctions of the holy
scriptures is right and that which is not in accordance with the sacred
lore is wrong. To work in accordance with the Divine Will is right and
to work in disharmony with the Divine Will is wrong. To do good to others,
to serve and help others, to give joy to others, is right and to give
pain to others, to injure others is wrong. All that which is free from
any motive of injury to any being is surely morality. Moral precepts
have been made to free creatures from all injuries.
Why is charity right? Because it is in conformity with the law: “Do
charity.” Why is stealing wrong? Because it is against the law:
“Thou shalt not steal.” Why is it good to help a man when
he is in trouble and difficulties? Because it will refine and ennoble
your character. It will instil mercy in your heart. The cultivation
of virtues will help you to realise the Supreme Self. Why is it bad
to kill any being? The end is unworthy. It will corrupt your character.
It will reduce you to the level of a brute.
By doing wrong actions, you taint your character. By doing virtuous
actions, you develop a noble character. Without character, man falls
down to the level of a brute. A man of character is honoured, trusted
and adored everywhere. Therefore, develop a good character when you
are young. Learn how to eradicate vices and how to cultivate virtues
in the garden of your heart. Vices and evil habits are the weeds. Virtues
are priceless fruits and flowers. Learn the Yogic method of Pratipaksha
Bhavana or cultivation of the opposites. Purity or celibacy, forgiveness,
generosity, humility and selflessness are the opposites of lust, anger,
greed, pride and selfishness. Become a skilful Yogic gardener. Plant
good flowers in the garden of your heart and enthrone the Lord in the
centre of the heart-garden and meditate on Him. You will enjoy eternal
bliss and immortality.
You must obey the laws or rules of conduct. The rules are given for
you by the law-givers for your own betterment and spiritual uplift.
The law-givers are great sages who had direct God-realisation.
To stick to Sadachara is difficult, no doubt. Mockery, misunderstanding
and persecution will have to be faced. Therefore, the cultivation of
forbearance, meekness of spirit, calm endurance and spirit of forgiveness
are of great importance. Uphold virtue at any cost. For its sake, bear
any calumny. Return good for evil.
Do not leave the path of morality even if your life is in danger. Do
not leave righteousness for the sake of some material gain. Consult
the Sastras and Mahatmas whenever you are in doubt. Build up your character.
Grow. Evolve. Keep up your ideal always before your mind. Stick to Sadachara
or right conduct. Practise it. You will soon attain eternal bliss and
immortality.
CHAPTER 5
What Is Karma?
Karma means not only action, but also the result of an action. The
consequence of an action is really not a separate thing. It is a part
of the action, and cannot be divided from it. Breathing, thinking, talking,
seeing, hearing, eating, etc., are Karmas. Thinking is mental Karma.
Karma is the sum total of our acts both in the present life and in the
preceding births.
Any deed, any thought that causes an effect, is called a Karma. The
Law of Karma means the law of causation. Wherever there is a cause,
there an effect must be produced. A seed is a cause for the tree which
is the effect. The tree produces seeds and becomes the cause for the
seeds.
How Karma Is Fashioned
Man is threefold in his nature. He consists of Ichha (desire, feeling),
Jnana (knowing) and Kriya (willing). These three fashion his Karma.
He knows objects like chair, tree, etc. He feels joy and sorrow. He
wills to do this, or not to do that.
Behind the action, there are desire and thought. A desire for an object
arises in the mind. Then you think how to get it. Then you exert to
possess it. Desire, thought and action always go together. They are
the three threads, as it were, that are twisted into the cord of Karma.
Desire produces Karma. You work and exert to acquire the objects of
your desire. Karma produces its fruits as pain or pleasure. You will
have to take births after births to reap the fruits of your Karmas.
This is the Law of Karma.
The Working Of The Law
The Law of Karma is one of the fundamental doctrines not only in Hinduism,
but also in Buddhism, and in Jainism. As a man sows, so he shall reap.
This is the Law of Karma. If you do an evil action, you must suffer
for it. If you do a good action, you must get happiness. There is no
power on this earth which can stop the actions from yielding their fruits.
Every thought, every word, every deed is, as it were, weighed in the
scales of eternal, divine Justice. The Law of Karma is inexorable.
Things do not happen in this universe by accident or chance in a disorderly
manner. They happen in regular succession. They follow one another in
a regular order. There is a certain definite connection between what
is being done now by you, and what will happen in the future.
Every action produces a threefold effect. It gives you an appropriate
reward or fruit. It also affects your character. It leaves behind an
impression in your mind. This impression will urge you to repeat the
act again. The impression will assume the form of a thought-wave in
the mind on account of a stimulus, either external or internal. An action
produces an effect in the world also.
As You Sow, So You Reap
If you put a seed in the earth, it sends up a little stem. Then leaves
come out of the stem. Then come flowers and fruits. There are seeds
again in the fruits. Mango seed only produces mango tree. If you sow
rice, you cannot expect a crop of wheat. The same sort of seed produces
the same kind of plant. A human being alone is born from the womb of
a woman, a horse from a horse and a dog from a dog. Similarly, if you
sow the seed of an evil action, you will reap a harvest of pain and
suffering. If you sow the seed of a virtuous action, you will reap a
harvest of pleasure. This is the Law of Karma.
Whatever you sow by your actions come back to you. If you make others
happy through service, charity and kind acts, you sow happiness like
a seed; and it will give you the fruit of happiness. If you make others
unhappy through harsh words, insult, ill-treatment, cruel acts, oppression,
etc., you sow unhappiness like a seed; and it will give you the fruit
of pain, suffering, misery and unhappiness. This is the immutable Law
of Karma.
Your actions in the past are responsible for your present condition.
Your present actions will shape or mould your future. There is nothing
chaotic or capricious in this world. You become good by your good actions,
and bad by your evil actions.
If you entertain evil thoughts, you must suffer the consequences. You
will be in difficulties. You will be surrounded by unfavourable circumstances.
You will blame your surroundings and circumstances. Understand the law
and live wisely. Entertain noble thoughts. You will be happy always.
Action—Habit—Character—Destiny
Thought moulds your character. If you entertain noble thoughts, you
will develop a noble character; and if you entertain evil thoughts,
you will develop a base character. This is the immutable Law of Nature.
Therefore, you can deliberately shape your character by cultivating
sublime thoughts. Thought materialises and becomes an action. If you
allow the mind to dwell on good, elevating thoughts, you will do naturally
good and laudable actions.
Conduct or behaviour reveals your character. Conduct also moulds your
Character. Cultivation of good conduct needs rigorous discipline and
constant vigilance. You will have to watch every thought, word and action.
You must be extremely careful when you conduct yourself with others.
With all your good intentions, you will be carried away by the force
of your previous wrong impressions, instincts and impulses. Even highly
educated people lack in behaviour. Good behaviour indicates that you
have a refined or polished, disciplined mind and real, good spiritual
culture. The practice of Japa, Pranayama and Mauna (or vow of silence)
will help you to control the impulses etc.
You sow an action and reap a habit. You sow a habit and reap a character.
You sow a character and reap your destiny. Hence, destiny is your own
make-up. You have built it. You can undo it by entertaining noble thoughts,
and doing virtuous actions, and changing your mode of thinking. Now
you are thinking that you are the body, Mr. So and so. Now, start the
anti-current of thought. Think that you are all-pervading, immortal
Brahman. Brahman you will become. This is an immutable Law.
The Three Kinds Of Karma
Sanchita, Prarabdha and Agami
Karma is of three kinds, viz., Sanchita (accumulated works), Prarabdha
(fructifying works) and Kriyamana or Agami (current works). Sanchita
is all the accumulated Karmas of the past. Part of it is seen in the
character of man, in his tendencies and aptitudes, capacities, inclinations
and desires, etc. Tendencies come from this. Prarabdha is that portion
of the past Karma which is responsible for the present body. That portion
of the Sanchita Karma which influences human life in the present incarnation
is called Prarabdha. It is ripe for reaping. It cannot be avoided or
changed. It is only exhausted by being experienced. You pay your past
debts. Prarabdha Karma is that which has begun and is actually bearing
fruit. It is selected out of the mass of the Sanchita Karma. Kriyamana
is that Karma which is now being made for the future. It is also called
Agami or Vartamana.
In Vedantic literature, there is a beautiful analogy. The bowman has
already sent an arrow and it has left his hands. He cannot recall it.
He is about to shoot another arrow. The bundle of arrows in the quiver
on his back is the Sanchita; the arrow he has shot is Prarabdha; and
the arrow which he is about to shoot from his bow is Agami. Of these,
he has perfect control over the Sanchita and the Agami, but he must
surely work out his Prarabdha. The past which has begun to take effect
he has to experience.
There is another beautiful analogy also. The granary represents the
Sanchita Karma; that portion taken from the granary and put in the shop
for future daily sale corresponds to Agami; that which is sold daily
represents Prarabdha.
The whole lot of Sanchita Karma is destroyed by attaining Knowledge
of Brahman or the Eternal. It can be greatly modified by entertaining
lofty, divine thoughts, and doing virtuous actions. Agami Karma can
be destroyed by expiatory rites or Prayaschitta; and by removing the
idea of agency through Nimitta Bhava (attitude that one is an
instrument in the hands of God) and Sakshi Bhava (attitude that
one is silent witness of the actions of the senses and of the mind).
The Supremacy Of Free-Will
You are the master of your own fate. You are the architect of your
own fortune. You are responsible for what you suffer. You are responsible
for your present state. If you are happy, it has been your own making.
If you are miserable, it has also been your own making. Every action
bears a fruit sooner or later. A virtuous action produces pleasure as
its effect. An evil deed causes pain.
You have no Bhoga-Svatantrya (freedom to determine the result
of action), but you have Karma-Svatantrya (freedom to determine
the course of action). That is the reason why the Lord Krishna says:
“Karmanyeva Adhikaraste Ma Phaleshu Kadachana—Thy business
is with the action only, never with its fruits.” Janaka and others
attained to perfection by action. You can change your character, your
thoughts and desires. Man’s will is ever free. Through selfishness
his will has become impure. He can render his will pure, strong and
dynamic by getting rid of his base desires, and likes and dislikes.
Every soul is like a husbandman who has got a plot of land. The acreage,
the nature of the soil, the conditions of weather are all predetermined.
But the husbandman is quite at liberty to till the earth, manure it
and get good crops, or to allow it to remain as a waste land.
What you are now at present is the result of what you thought and did
in the past. What you shall be in the future will be the result of what
you think and do now. You find an environment which is best suited to
the tendencies you acquired in a former life. You can create better
conditions for the future. You can make your Karma what you choose.
You can rise to a very high state of perfection. You can become an Indra
or you may become a perfect Yogin. You can change your character, thoughts
and actions. Therefore Bhishma and Vasishtha have placed Purushartha
or exertion, above destiny.
A boatman without oars, rudder and sails is carried away helplessly
by the winds and currents; but a clever boatman with oars, sails and
rudder, ably directs the boat in any direction he likes and reaches
the other shore safely. Even so, he who knows the Laws of Nature—the
law of thought, the law of Karma, the law of cause and effect—can
sail fearlessly in this ocean of Samsara and reach the other shore of
fearlessness and immortality quite safely. He will utilise the helping
forces to his best advantage and neutralise the opposing forces skilfully,
with the help of the knowledge of the Laws. Knowledge is a torch-light.
Hence, knowledge is absolutely indispensable. Ignorance is the greatest
sin. An ignorant man becomes a victim or a slave of nature.
The Glory Of Selfless Work
Selfish Karma leads you to rebirth and rebirth generates new Karma
while working off the old. Get rid of Karma if you wish to get rid of
the miseries of rebirth. Selfless work will not bind you. It will purify
your heart and lead to the descent of the divine light and grace. Understand
the Law of Karma and the law of cause and effect. Think rightly. Act
nobly. Meditate regularly and attain eternal bliss and immortality.
The doctrine of reincarnation or transmigration of souls is a fundamental
tenet of Hinduism. The word reincarnation literally means embodiment
again, coming again into a physical body. The individual soul takes
again a fleshy covering. The word transmigration means passing
from one place to another—passing into a new body.
The Sanskrit term Samsara is derived from the Sanskrit root
Sr, which means ‘to pass’. The prefix Sam means
‘intensely’. The individual soul passes repeatedly through
this world and other subtle higher worlds. This repeated passing of
souls—Samsriti—is what is really meant by the term
Samsara.
Samsara exists in order that the individual soul may learn to realise
itself.
Man contains within himself infinite possibilities. The magazine of
power and wisdom is within him. He has to unfold the divinity within.
This is the object of living and dying.
Enunciation Of The Doctrine In The Hindu Scriptures
You will not cease to exist after death. Before this birth, you have
passed through countless lives. The Lord Krishna says in the Gita: “O
Arjuna, both you and I have had many births before this; only I know
them all, while you do not. Birth is inevitably followed by death, and
death by rebirth. As a man casting off worn-out garments taketh new
ones, so the dweller in the body, casting off worn-out bodies, entereth
into others that are new.”
The Upanishads also declare: “Just as a caterpillar which has
come to the top of a blade of grass, draws itself over to a new blade,
so also does the soul draw itself over to a new body, after it has put
aside its old body” (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad). “Just as a
goldsmith, having taken a piece of gold, makes another form, new and
more beautiful, so also, verily the Atman having cast off this body
and having put away Avidya or ignorance, makes another new and more
beautiful form” (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad). “Like corn, does
a mortal ripen; like corn, does he spring to life again” (Kathopanishad).
Karma And Rebirth
The doctrine of rebirth is a corollary to the Law of Karma. The differences
of disposition that are found between one individual and another must
be due to their respective past actions. Past action implies past birth.
Further, all your Karmas cannot certainly bear fruit in this life. Therefore,
there must be another birth for enjoying the remaining actions. Each
soul has a series of births and deaths. Births and deaths will continue
till you attain Knowledge of the Imperishable.
Good Karmas lead to incarnation into higher spheres and bad Karmas
into lower. By virtue is obtained ascent to higher planes and by vice,
descent to the lower. From wisdom results beatitude, and bondage from
the reverse. So long as Karmas—whether good or bad—are not
exhausted, men do not attain Moksha or the final emancipation even in
hundreds of Kalpas. Both good and bad Karmas bind tight the Jiva in
their chains. One is a chain of gold and the other is that of iron.
Moksha cannot be attained by man, so long as Knowledge of the Eternal
is not attained.
Proofs For The Existence Of Previous Births
A new-born child manifests marks of joy, fear and grief. This is inexplicable
unless we suppose that the child, perceiving certain things in this
life, remembers the corresponding things of the past life. The things
which used to excite joy, fear and grief in the past life, continue
to do so in this life. The memory of the past proves the previous birth,
as well as the existence of the soul.
A child, just born, drinks the breast of its mother through the remembrance
that it did so in the previous life, as a means of satisfying hunger.
The child’s desire for milk in this life is caused by the remembrance
of its experience in the previous life. This proves that the child’s
soul, though it has abandoned a previous body and has taken on a new
one, remembers the experiences of the previous body.
You do not come into the world in total forgetfulness and in utter
darkness. You are born with certain memories and habits acquired in
the previous birth. Desires take their origin from previous experiences.
We find that none is born without desire. Every being is born with some
desires which are associated with the things enjoyed by him in the past
life. The desires prove the existence of his soul in previous lives.
Passage Of The Soul Between Death And Rebirth
The soul migrates with the astral body, or Sukshma-Sarira or
Linga-Deha. This astral body is made up of nineteen Tattvas
or principles, viz., five organs of action, five organs of knowledge,
five Pranas, mind, intellect, Chitta (the subconscious), and
Ahankara or egoism. This subtle body carries with it all sorts
of Samskaras or impressions, and Vasanas or tendencies,
of the individual soul. The subtle body moves towards heaven. When the
fruits of good Karmas have been exhausted, it gathers for itself a new
physical body and reincarnates on this earth plane.
Those whose conduct has been good attain good births and those whose
conduct has been evil are thrown into sinful wombs or lower births.
The Devayana And The Pitriyana
When a man who has practised meditation and worship dies, he first
goes to light, then from light to day, from day to the bright half of
the moon, from the bright half of the moon to the six months when the
sun goes to the north, from that to the year, from the year to the sun,
from the sun to the moon, from the moon to the lightning. When he comes
to the sphere of lightning, he meets a person who is not human. That
person leads him to the Karya Brahman or Hiranyagarbha. This is the
Way of the Devas or Devayana.
He who has done works of public utility and alms, first goes to the
smoke when he dies, from smoke to night, from night to the dark half
of the moon, from the dark half of the moon to the six months when the
sun goes to the south; and from that, he goes to the region of the forefathers,
from the world of the forefathers to the ether, from the ether to the
moon. He lives there so long as his good works will allow. When the
effect of the good works is exhausted, he comes back to this earth by
the same route. He first becomes ether, and then air, and then smoke,
and then mist, then cloud, and then falls upon the earth as rain-drops.
Then he gets into food which is eaten up by man, and finally becomes
his child.
He passes through the various existences of the mineral kingdom, of
the plant and of the animal realms—the Udbhijja (born of seed),
the Svedaja (born of sweat) and the Andaja (born of eggs), before coming
into the Jarayuja (viviparous or of placental origin).
How To Break The Bond Of Samsara
The chains that tie you to this wheel of Samsara or Bhava-Chakra
or round of births and deaths, are your desires. So long as you
desire objects of this world, you must come back to this world in order
to possess and enjoy them. But, when all your desires for the mundane
objects cease, then the chains are broken and you are free. You need
not take any more births. You attain Moksha or the final emancipation.
You wander in this Samsara as you think that you are different from
the Lord. If you unite yourself with Him through meditation and Yoga,
you will obtain immortality and eternal bliss. Cut the bonds of Karma
through Knowledge of the Eternal and enjoy the Supreme Peace of the
Atman, thy innermost Self and Inner Ruler. You will be freed from the
round of births and deaths. Freed from sin, freed from passion, you
will become a Jivanmukta or liberated sage. You will see the Self in
the self and see the Self as all.
Avatara is the decent of God on earth for the ascent of man.
The Lord Krishna says: “Though unborn, the Imperishable Self and
also the Lord of all beings, yet brooding over nature which is Mine
own, I am born through My Own Power. Whenever there is decline of righteousness,
then I Myself come forth. For the protection of the good, for the destruction
of the evil-doers, for the sake of firmly establishing righteousness,
I am born from age to age” (Ch. IV-6, 7, 8).
The Doctrine Of Grace
The Bhagavatas had their own scriptures called the Pancharatra Agamas
which expounded the cult of Vasudeva and which were, therefore, looked
upon by them as being equal to the Upanishads. Their religion was based
on God’s Grace to erring humanity. It, therefore, greatly emphasised
the doctrine of Avatara or incarnation and popularised the immortal
stories which were afterwards collected together in the Harivamsa, Vishnu
Purana and the Bhagavata Purana. If you study these books, you will
clearly know about the glory of Lord Krishna.
You can attain God-realisation through worship of Avataras like Krishna
and Rama. Many have already attained God-realisation. Tukaram, Ramdas,
Surdas, Mira Bai, Tulsidas and several others have seen God face to
face. Their powerful writings bespeak of their high spiritual attainments.
Degree Of God’s Manifestation
There are Purna-Avataras (full incarnations), Amsa-Avataras (partial
incarnations), Avesa-Avataras (inspirational incarnations), etc. The
Lord Krishna has sixteen rays. He is a Purna-Avatara. He still exists.
There are His Nitya-Lilas in Go-Loka or Celestial Vrindavana.
It is only ignorant, deluded souls who speak against the doctrine of
Avatara, who say that the Lord Krishna was a human being only. They
have not studied properly the holy scriptures. They are Tamasic persons
with little understanding. They cavil and carp. The Lord Krishna says:
“The evil-doing, the deluded, the vilest men, they come not to
Me, they whose wisdom is destroyed by illusion, who have embraced the
nature of demons. Such is their fate.”
Friends! Worship Rama or Krishna at all times with all your heart and
with all your mind. Glorify Him in your heart. He will soon reveal Himself
to you and you will feel His Presence. You will attain immortality and
eternal bliss. Glory to Avataras. Glory to the Lords, Krishna and Rama,
the Avataras of Lord Vishnu! May their blessings be upon you all.
CHAPTER 6
Sandhyopasana literally means ‘worship at the junctions of time.’
It is a prayer and worship offered to the Lord at the junction (Sandhi)
of night and morning, forenoon and afternoon and at the junction
of evening and night. The Arghyapradana to the sun and the meditation
on and recitation of Gayatri, form the heart of the worship. Properly
understood, the whole Sandhya is an earnest prayer addressed to the
Lord to forgive all one’s sins committed during one’s routine,
daily activities and to bestow illumination and grace.
Sandhyopasana must be performed at the proper Sandhyas. Then only the
performer can derive much merit. There is a special manifestation of
force at Sandhyas. This force disappears when the Sandhya is past.
An Obligatory Duty
Sandhyopasana is the daily religious practice of the Hindus whose investiture
with the holy thread has been performed. Sandhya is a Nitya Karma or
an action that is to be done daily. Sandhya is an obligatory duty to
be performed daily for self-purification and self-improvement.
Sandhya should be performed by all followers of the Sanatana Dharma.
Every Brahmachari and every householder must perform it every day. If
he fails to perform it, there is Pratyavaya Dosha or the sin of omission.
He loses his Brahma-Tejas.
According to the Hindu Sastras, a Brahmana, a Kshatriya and a Vaisya
will get hell, if they do not perform three times Sandhyopasana (Traikalika
Sandhya) daily. It is for the purpose of Sandhya only, the law of Yajnopavita-Samskara
is laid down in the Yajnavalkya Smriti which says: “The Brahmana
in his eighth year, the Kshatriya in his eleventh year and the Vaisya
in his twelfth year are fit to be given Yajnopavita.” Because,
only after this particular Samskara, they are supposed to be worthy
to worship Sandhya and take to Vedic rites. They should keep themselves
pure internally and externally. They can nicely understand the sacred
glory of this divine science.
Benefits Of Sandhyopasana
Sandhya is a combination of Japa, Upasana, Svadhyaya, meditation,
concentration, Asana, Pranayama, etc. He who does Sandhya daily
has Brahma-Tejas or spiritual lustre, in his face. A man who
performs his daily Sandhya, according to the prescribed rules, at the
appointed time as laid down in the scriptures, attains purity and success
in his every effort. He becomes powerful as well as calm. Regular Sandhya
cuts the chain of old Samskaras and changes everybody’s old situation
entirely. It brings purity, Atma-Bhava, devotion and sincerity.
The Ceremony
The important features of this ceremony are: (i) Achamana or
sipping of water with recitation of Mantras (viz., Achyutaya Namah,
Anantaya Namah, Govindaya Namah, etc.), Marjana or sprinkling
of water on the body which purifies the mind and the body, Aghamarshana
or expiation for the sins of many births, and Surya Arghya or
oblations of water to the Sun-god, (ii) Pranayama or control
of breath which steadies the wandering mind, and silent recitation of
Gayatri, (iii) Upasthana or religious obeisance.
Arghya
The first part up to Arghya consists of hymns addressed to water
and its benefits. The sprinkling of water on the face and the head and
the touching of the different organs (the mouth, nose, eyes, ears, chest,
shoulders, head, etc.) with wetted fingers, are meant to purify those
parts of the body and invoke the respective presiding deities on them.
They also stimulate the nerve-centres and wake up the dormant powers
of the body.
The Arghya drives the demons who obstruct the path of the rising sun.
Esoterically, lust, anger and greed are the demons who obstruct the
intellect from rising up. The intellect is the sun.
Pranayama and Japa
The second part of Sandhya consists of Pranayama and Japa of Gayatri.
Suryopasthana
The third part of Sandhya is the Suryopasthana. It is a prayer for
forgiveness, mercy and grace. The prayer is: “Let me not go down
to the earthly house. Have mercy, O Lord! My strength was very weak,
O Lord! I did wrong actions. Have mercy, O Lord!” These are Vedic
hymns addressed to the sun in the morning, noon and evening. The sun
is the intellect in man. Ignorance is the night. Knowledge is the light.
When you rise up from the darkness of ignorance, when the eye of intuition
is opened through the grace of Gayatri, the Blessed Mother of the Vedas,
you attain eternal bliss, supreme peace and immortality. It is that
divine light which dispels delusion and the darkness of ignorance. It
is that adorable splendour with which the world is glowing. It is that
holy lustre which graciously fills the heart of a devotee with eternal
bliss. It is this supreme Light which the aspirant craves from God through
the Gayatri Mantra. He begs of God this Knowledge for his Realisation.
Sandhyopasana—An Exact Science
Man naturally wants to realise the Truth. He wants to know the secret
of Creation. In this connection, scriptures emphatically declare: “Only
at the moment when all doubts are cleared, ignorance is destroyed, hypocrisy
and cruelty are rent asunder, and when a man sees Him in the abode of
his heart, the real and ultimate Truth is revealed.”
Sandhya-Vijnana or the Science of Sandhya is an exact science to attain
success in the realm of Truth. One need not have any kind of superstition
to learn this divine science. One need not prove its greatness. Its
greatness, its glory, is open truth. Even the materialistic society
of today agrees with the truth of Sandhya-Vijnana. In the scriptures,
it is laid: “Brahmanhood is the tree, Sandhya is its root, Vedas
are its branches, religious acts are its leaves; therefore take care
of its root, i.e., Sandhya.” Now the glory of Sandhya is very clear.
Sandhya is absolutely necessary for a man who is treading the path of
Truth. Aharahah Sandhyamupasita, i.e., a Brahmin should perform
regularly his daily Sandhya at any cost—is the injunction of the
scriptures.
Prerequisites For The Practice Of Sandhya
Diet
If you want to learn this science, you must be careful about your diet.
Take regular and light Sattvic food. Man is much influenced by his diet.
See the difference between a small lion and a big elephant. You will
be able to improve yourself by adjusting your diet. Idleness is due
to a variety of rich diet only. Therefore, be strict in your daily diet.
You will be ever active and strong.
Sitting Pose
A man who performs Sandhya does not care about his sitting pose. He
sits in any posture. This is not much beneficial. He should daily sit
in a perfect posture, Padmasana or Sukhasana, facing the particular
direction. As far as possible, he must finish his Sandhya in one sitting.
He must have perfect mastery over Asana. Then he will have concentration
in his Sandhya.
Faith and Devotion
You must do your Sandhya with faith and devotion. Mere repetition will
not bring much good. Pray from the core of your heart to the Lord to
forgive your sins.
A Word To The Younger Generation
Our young college students, who are under the influence of wrong Samskaras
and wrong education and evil company, have forgotten all about the glory
and high efficacy of Sandhya. They are not doing Sandhya. Sandhya has
no meaning for them. They have become Godless men. They want laboratory
tests and scientific proofs for the usefulness of Sandhya, before they
begin to do Sandhya. It must be supported by the statements of western
scientists. The words of ancient Rishis do not appeal to them. What
a greatly degraded state!
O young students! Do not ruin yourself by neglecting Sandhya. Regular
performance of Sandhya will give you success in life and material and
spiritual prosperity, good health and long life, purity of heart, and
help you to attain God-realisation. Do it from now at least. Yet there
is hope for you. Wake up. Be sincere.
Now take strict resolve from this very moment to be regular in your
daily Sandhya, even under many distractions and obstacles. Begin it
from this very moment. Do not delay. Reduce your useless activities.
Talk little. Do not mix much. You will get plenty of time for your Sandhya.
Be strict in your Sandhya. Let there be rain or wind. Even if the Pralaya
comes, do not leave it half-done. Many people say that they have not
got time to perform Sandhya. They have to attend several functions.
This is due to their weakness and lack of good Samskaras. They do not
know the glory of this divine science. If they see one of their friends
sitting on the banks of the river and performing Sandhya, they will
begin to shout or they will play some sort of mischief. But these poor
creatures do not know what secret is hidden behind the Sandhya. The
Secret of secrets is hidden in this sacred performance. This is why
ancient Rishis say: “One who does not perform daily Sandhya is
a real animal.”
May God give you the mind to perform daily Sandhya at any cost. May
you follow the rules of Sandhya. May you realise the glory of Sandhya-Vijnana
and be free from all tribulations and torments. May the divine science
named Sandhya-Vijnana bestow purity, immense joy and immortality on
you!
The rites that pertain to the stages of life of man are called Samskaras.
The Samskaras are purificatory rites which sanctify the life of the
Hindu. They give a spiritual touch to the important events in the life
of the individual from conception to cremation. They mark the important
stages of a man’s life. Just as the outline of a picture is lighted
up slowly with the filling in of many colours, so also is Brahmanya
with scriptural Samskaras. There are the Samskaras of childhood, of
boyhood, of manhood and of old age and death.
There are fiftytwo Samskaras. Among these, ten are important. The ten
principal and generally recognised Samskaras are: Garbhadana, Pumsavana,
Simantonnayana, Jatakarma, Namakarana, Annaprasana, Chudakarma, Upanayana,
Samavartana and Vivaha. Of these ten, only some are now performed.
Some of the Samskaras pertain to infantile life and early childhood.
Some are ceremonies which may be performed daily or on special occasions.
The whole life of the Hindu is thus consecrated and protected from the
cradle to the grave.
Garbhadana
The Garbhadana sanctifies the creative act. The husband prays fervently
from the core of his heart that a child may be conceived. He repeats
sacred Mantras during Ritu-Santi ceremony or nuptials. The new child
is conceived amidst the vibration of Mantras. Good impressions are impressed
in the brain-cells of the embryo. For a real Hindu who is endowed with
pure intellect and right understanding, the sexual union is not for
the sake of mere enjoyment. He utilises the divine, creative, vital
energy for the formation of a human body. Husband and wife should be
cheerful and pious when they have intercourse. When their minds are
perturbed or agitated, or when there is anger or hatred, they should
avoid copulation. They should study holy scriptures. If they have the
image of Arjuna, they will have a chivalrous and wise son. If they have
the image of Lord Buddha, they will bring forth a son with mercy and
other good virtues. If they have the image Of Dhanvantari, they will
get a son who will turn out to be a reputed Ayurvedic doctor. If they
think of Surya or Sun-God, they will bring forth a lustrous son with
splendour and effulgence.
Pumsavana
In the third month, the Pumsavana is performed with Mantras. The food-sheath
and the vital-sheath of the child are formed.
Simantonnayana
The Simantonnayana is performed at the seventh month with recitation
of Veda Mantras. This protects the mother from evil influences and bestows
health on the child. The above three Samskaras protect the mother and
the child. The body of the child develops nicely. The harmonious vibrations
set up by the recitation of Mantras and the performance of the ceremonies
help in shaping the body of the child beautifully.
Jatakarma
The next Samskara, the ceremony performed immediately after the birth
of the child, is the Jatakarma. The father welcomes his new-born child.
He prays for its long life, intelligence and well-being, and feeds it
with honey and butter.
Namakarana
Then comes Namakarana or the naming ceremony. The new-born child is
given a name on the tenth, eleventh or twelfth day with recitation of
Mantras.
Annaprasana
The Annaprasana comes in the sixth month when the child is given solid
food for the first time. Mantras are recited and oblations are offered
to the various deities.
Chudakarma
The Chudakarma, the tonsure or shaving of the head, is performed in
the first or third year. The Karnavedha or ear-boring ceremony is performed
in the fifth or the seventh year or at the end of the first year with
the Chudakarma. The body of the child is protected and harmonised by
these ceremonies. Any hereditary defect that arises from defect of semen
and embryo is removed. Vidyarambha also is another Samskara. Alphabet
is taught to the child. This is also known by the name Aksharabhyasa.
These Samskaras pertain to the child stage of life.
Upanayana
The most important ceremony which marks the beginning of the next stage
of life—the stage of youth—is Upanayana. Upanayana is a very
important Samskara. It is a landmark in the life of the child. It is
his second or spiritual birth. The word Upanayana means bringing
near.
The boy is brought near his Guru, spiritual teacher. The preceptor
invests him with the sacred thread, Yajnopavita, and initiates him by
giving him the Gayatri Mantra, and gives him a staff. This is the beginning
of Brahmacharya Asrama, during which Brahmacharya—perfect or entire
celibacy—is enjoined. He is to begin the life of study. The initiation
makes him a Dvija, twice-born. The father and the mother gave birth
to him from mutual desire. This is his physical birth. Initiation into
Gayatri Mantra is his another, true birth. According to Yajnavalkya,
the Upanayana ceremony is performed at the eighth year for a Brahmana,
eleventh for a Kshatriya and twelfth for a Vaisya. Manu gives the age
at the fifth year for a Brahmana, the sixth for a Kshatriya and the
eighth for a Vaisya.
Significance of the Sacred Thread and Other Symbols
The sacred thread or Yajnopavita consists of three threads knotted
together. He who wears the thread should have a triple control, over
his mind, speech and body—thought, word and deed. The holy thread
signifies the various triads which exist in the world, viz., Sat, Chit
and Ananda; creation, preservation and destruction; the three states
of waking, dreaming and deep sleep; the three qualities of Sattva, Rajas
and Tamas; the Trimurtis Brahma, Vishnu and Siva; etc.
The staff signifies that the student should have control over his thoughts,
words and actions. He who practises control over his thoughts, words
and actions, and he who practises Brahmacharya in thought, word and
deed, attains perfection.
The boy wears a Kaupina, a small yellow cloth and a girdle of Munja
grass. The Acharya puts on him a deerskin. The new yellow cloth represents
the new body. Yellow colour is a symbol of spirituality. Wearing of
Kaupina indicates that the boy should lead a pure life of perfect celibacy.
The girdle is wound round thrice. This indicates that the boy has to
study the Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The deer-skin
represents the ascetic life he should lead.
Samavartana
Then comes the end of the student stage, the Samavartana. The student,
having completed the Vedic studies and the Vratas, presents his preceptor
with a gift and obtains permission to take the formal bath which marks
the close of his student-career. He returns home and performs the Samavartana,
the returning ceremony. He is now ready to marry and enter the second
stage or Grihastha Asrama, the life of a householder.
Vivaha
Vivaha is marriage or entry into the second Asrama. The life of the
householder begins. Now he takes up his duties as man and pays his spiritual
debts by sacrifice, by study and by procreating children. The bridegroom
tells the bride: “I take your hand for good fortune.” They
walk round the sacred fire hand-in-hand. The bride sacrifices grains
in the fire and prays: “May my husband live long. May my relations
increase.”
The Last Two Stages Of Life
There are two more stages, viz., Vanaprastha and Sannyasa,
with their rites.
Man withdraws himself from all worldly activities, retires into the
forest and prepares himself for taking Sannyasa. This is the life of
a Vanaprastha.
A Sannyasin renounces the world and leads a life of study and meditation
by living on alms.
Pretakarma is funeral rite. When a man dies, the funeral ceremonies
are performed by his son and heir.
There are five great daily sacrifices that are to be performed by every
householder. They are: (i) Brahma Yajna, called also Veda Yajna, sacrifice
to Brahman or the Vedas or the sages; (ii) Deva Yajna, sacrifice to
the celestials; (iii) Pitri Yajna, sacrifice to the manes; (iv) Bhuta
Yajna, sacrifice to all the creatures; and (v) Manushya Yajna, sacrifice
to men.
The performance of these five Yajnas is conducive to the spiritual
evolution or growth of a man. He gradually learns that he is not a separate
entity or isolated creature or isolated unit, but is a part of a great
whole. He obtains knowledge by studying the sacred scriptures written
by great Rishis. He gets help from his friends, relatives and fellow-beings.
He parents gave his physical body. His body is nourished by the milk
of cows, grains, vegetables and fruits. The five elements help him.
He cannot live without oxygen and water. The Devas and the Pitris bless
him. Therefore, he owes a fivefold debt to Nature. He must pay back
his debt by performing these five sacrifices daily. Further, numerous
insects are killed by him unconsciously during walking, sweeping, grinding,
cooking, etc. This sin is removed by performance of these sacrifices.
The Five Yajnas
The Rishis, the Devas, the Pitris, the Bhutas and the guests expect
help from the householders. Hence, they should perform these five sacrifices
daily. Teaching and study of scriptures is Brahma Yajna; Tarpana or
offering of water to the ancestors, and Sraaddha, form Pitri Yajna:
Homa or oblations into the fire is Deva Yajna; Bali or offering of food
to all creatures is Bhuta Yajna; and hospitality to guests is Manushya
Yajna or Atithi Yajna.
Brahma Yajna or Rishi Yajna
Every man should study daily the sacred scriptures. He should share
the knowledge with others. This is Brahma Yajna or Rishi Yajna. By so
doing, he pays the debt to Rishis.
Deva Yajna
Lord Krishna says in the Bhagavad-Gita: “Having, in ancient times,
emanated mankind together with sacrifice, the Lord of Creation said,
‘By this shall ye propagate; be this to you the fulfiller of desires.
With this, nourish ye the shining ones; and may the shining ones nourish
ye. Thus nourishing one another, ye shall reap the highest good. For,
nourished by sacrifice, the shining ones shall bestow on you the enjoyments
you desire. A thief verily is he who enjoyeth what is given by them
without returning them anything. The righteous, who eat the remains
of the sacrifice, are freed from all sins; but the unpious who cook
for their own sake, they verily eat sin,” (Ch. III-10, 11, 12,
13). Manu says: “Let a man ever engage in the study of the Vedas
and in the rites of the Devas; engaging in the rites of the Vedas, he
supports the movable and the immovable kingdoms.” These sacrifices
turn the wheel of life in accordance with the divine will and thus help
the evolution of man and the worlds.
Pitri Yajna
Offering libations, etc., to the forefathers, regularly, is Pitri Yajna.
Bhuta-Yajna
Distribution of food to cows, dogs, birds, fish, etc., is Bhuta Yajna.
Manushya Yajna
Feeding the poor is Manushya Yajna. Feeding the hungry, clothing the
naked, giving shelter to the homeless, comforting the distressed, etc.,
are all forms of Manushya Yajna. Any kind of service to the suffering
humanity is Manushya Yajna. Feeding a guest is Manushya Yajna.
Benefits Of The Pancha Mahayajnas
By daily doing such acts of kindness and sympathy, man develops mercy.
Hatred vanishes. His hard egoistic heart is gradually softened. He cultivates
cosmic love. His heart expands. He has a wider outlook on life. He tries
to feel his oneness with all beings. His old feeling of separateness
on account of selfishness and egoism is gradually thinned and eventually
eradicated. He learns that he can be happy only by making others happy,
by serving others, by helping others, by removing the sufferings of
others and by sharing what he has with others. The five great daily
sacrifices teach man his relations with his superiors, his equals and
his inferiors.
Man has no separate individual existence. He is connected with the
world. He is like a bead in the rosary. His whole life must be a life
of sacrifice and duties. Then only he will have rapid evolution. Then
only he will realise the supreme bliss of the Eternal. Then only he
will free himself from the round of births and deaths and attain immortality.
Sraaddha is the name of the ceremonies performed by relatives to help
the Jiva who has cast off his physical body in death. A Jiva who has
cast off his physical sheath is called a Preta. The part of the Sraaddha
performed to help him at this stage is called the Preta Kriya.
How Sraaddha And Tarpana Benefit The Departed Souls
Gifts to deserving Brahmanas for the benefit of the Pitris, in the
proper time and place and with faith, are known as Sraaddha. Sraaddha
gives satisfaction to the Pitris. By the offering of the sixteen Sraaddhas,
the son helps his father to dwell in joy with the Pitris. The son should
perform the Sapindikarana rites for his father. Performance of Sraaddha
and Tarpana relieves the hunger and thirst of the departed soul during
its journey to the Pitri Loka.
Those who go to hell are extremely oppressed by hunger and thirst.
Performance of Sraaddha and offerings of rice and oblations to them,
relieve their sufferings. Hence, performance of Sraaddha is indispensable.
Those who dwell in heaven also get satisfaction, strength and nourishment.
The Advantages Of Cremation
Cremation is the best way of destroying a dead body. This is highly
beneficial for the departed soul. If the body is not burnt; the Jiva
is linked to the earth. The soul hovers round or hangs about the dead
body on account of Moha or attachment to the physical body. Its journey
to the celestial regions is interfered with. The vibrations set up by
the recitation of Mantras and the offerings and oblations of water,
bring solace and comfort to the departed soul. The Sapindikarana ceremony
helps the Jiva to pass from the Preta Loka to the Pitri Loka. He is
then enrolled among the Pitris or the ancestors. The son walks three
times round the dead body of his father before fire is set to the pyre
and sprinkles water once, reciting the Mantra: “Go away. Withdraw
and depart from here.” The bones are collected on the next day
and thrown into a river. Those who can afford take them to Benares or
Haridwar and throw them into the Ganga. It is believed that the soul
whose mortal remains are consigned to the sacred Ganga attains to the
higher regions of spiritual light and splendour and, in the end, salvation.
The Two Classes Of Pitris
Immediately after death, the Jiva obtains the Ativahika body which
is made up of fire, air and ether. Later on, it may have a Yatana Deha
for suffering the tortures of hell if it had done great sins on the
earth-plane, or a celestial body for enjoying the pleasures of heaven
if it had done virtuous actions while living in the world. In the Yatana
Deha, the air-element preponderates; while, in the celestial body, the
element of fire is dominant. It takes one year for the Jiva to reach
the Pitri Loka.
There are two classes of Pitris, viz., the celestial Pitris who
are the lords of the Pitri Loka, and the human Pitris who go
there after death. Brahma is the paternal grandfather of all. Kasyapa
and the other Prajapatis are also Pitris, as they are the original progenitors.
Pitri Loka or the Abode of the Pitris is also called by the name Bhuvar
Loka.
The word Pitris primarily means the immediate ancestors, viz.,
father, mother, etc. Sraaddha proper is performed for three generations
of Pitris, or to all Pitris. Three cakes are offered to the father,
the grandfather and the great grandfather. Two Brahmins are fed first.
Seven generations can mutually influence one another by the giving and
receiving of food.
The dark fortnight of the month of Asvayuja is known as the Pitripaksha
or the fortnight of the month specially sanctified for offering oblations
to the departed ancestors. And the last day, the day of the new moon,
is considered as the most important day in the year for performing obsequies
and like rites.
Now, ordinarily, the orthodox Hindus offer oblation of water—Tarpana-Arghya—to
the departed every new-moon day. The prescribed rites are also performed
every year on the anniversary of the day of death. This is the Sraaddha
ceremony. What, then, is the special import of these observances particularly
during the Asvayuja Krishna Paksha? The reason is that such ceremonies
done during this fortnight have a very special effect. The offerings
reach the Pitris immediately and directly, due to a boon from Lord Yama.
The occasion for the boon arose as follows:
Origin Of The Pitripaksha
A Story from the Mahabharata
The renowned hero of the Mahabharata, Danavira Karna, when he left
the mortal coil, ascended to the higher worlds and reached the region
of the heroes. There, the fruit of his extraordinary charity while upon
earth came to him multiplied thousandfold, but it came to him in the
form of immense piles of gold and silver. Karna had done limitless charity
of wealth, but had neglected to do Anna-Dana. Thus he found himself
in the midst of wealth and plenty, but with no food to appease him.
He prayed to Lord Yama. The Great Ruler responded to Karna’s prayer
and granted him a respite for fourteen days to return to the earth-plane
once again and make up for his former neglect. Karna came down from
the Mrityu Loka, and for fourteen days, he fed the Brahmins and the
poor, and made offerings of water, etc. He performed the prescribed
rites also on the last day. On his return once again to the higher world,
the effect of Karna’s observances during this fortnight removed
all his wants there. The time of this occurrence was the dark fortnight
of Asvayuja.
Due to the grace of Lord Yama, it came to be so ordained that such
rites done at this particular period acquired the following unique merits.
Offerings made at this time reached all departed souls, whether they
were kins directly in the line of the offerer or not. Even those who
died without progeny received these oblations given on this Pitripaksha
Amavasya day. All those who had failed to do deeds of charity and Anna-Dana
and were thus denied these comforts in the Pitri Loka, benefited by
these ceremonies. Those deceased whose date of death is not known and
whose annual Sraaddha cannot be done, they also get these oblations
of Pitripaksha. Souls whose life was cut off by violent, accidental
or unnatural death and to whom, therefore, offerings cannot reach in
the ordinary course, to them, too, the Pitripaksha offerings reach directly.
All these the boon of Lord Yama made possible from the time the great
Karna performed the Asvayuja-Paksha rites. The Hindus now observe this
Paksha with great faith, with strict regulation, taking bath thrice,
with partial fasting, etc. On the newmoon day, Sarvapitri Amavasya,
the full rites are done and plenty of charity given.
Propitiation Of Departed Spirits
The day of Mahalaya Amavasya is a day of great significance and importance
to all Hindus. It is the annual festival for propitiating the spirits
of our ancestors, with devout prayers for peace. The Hindu Itihasas
say, that on the Mahalaya Amavasya, there is a conjunction of the sun
and the moon and that the sun enters the sign Virgo (Kanya). On this
day, the departed manes, i.e., our ancestors, leave their abode in the
world of Yama and come down to the world of mortals and occupy the houses
of their descendants.
The fortnight preceding the new moon is specially consecrated for the
propitiation of such departed spirits. The ceremonies performed in honour
of the manes or ancestors during each day of this fortnight are considered
to be equal to those performed at Gaya. The principle in all such rites
is the worship of the departed souls and the satisfaction of their wishes
so that they might be in peace during the rest of the year.
Religious observances, traditional worship and Vratas have, at times,
more than one significance. Apart from being the adoration of the Divine,
they are commemorative of stirring bygone events, allegoric when interpreted
from the occult standpoint, and are significant pointers guiding the
Jiva on his path to Realisation.
Outwardly, the nine days’ worship of Devi or the Mother, known
as Navaratri Puja, is in the nature of a Vijaya-Utsava. The nine days’
triumphs are offered to the Mother for Her successful struggle with
the formidable demons led by Sumbha and Nisumbha. But, to the spiritual
aspirant in his life of Sadhana, the particular division of the Navaratri
into sets of three days to adore different aspects of the Supreme Goddess
has got a very sublime, yet thoroughly practical, truth to reveal. In
its cosmic aspect, it epitomises the stages of the evolution of man
into God, from Jivahood to Sivahood. In its individual import, it shows
the course that his spiritual Sadhana should take.
Now, the central purpose of existence is to recognise your eternal
identity with the Supreme Spirit. It is to grow into the image of the
Divine. The Supreme One embodies the highest perfection. It is spotless
purity, Niranjana. To recognise your identity with That, to attain union
with That, is verily to grow into the very likeness of the Divine. The
Sadhaka has, therefore, as the initial step, to get rid of the countless
impurities and the undivine elements, that have come to cling to him
in his embodied state. Then he has to acquire lofty virtues and auspicious
divine qualities. Thus purified and rendered full of Sattva, Knowledge
flashes upon him like the brilliant rays of the sun upon the crystal
waters of a perfectly calm lake.
Worship Of Durga
The Eradication of Vices
This process of Sadhana implies resolute will, determined effort and
arduous struggle. In other words, strength, infinite Sakti, is the prime
necessity. It is the Divine Mother, Supreme Sakti of Brahman, that has
to operate through the aspirant. On the first three days, Mother is
adored as Power, Force—Durga, the Terrible. You pray to Mother
Durga to destroy all your impurities, your vices, your defects. She
is to fight with and annihilate the baser animal qualities in the Sadhaka,
the lower Asura in his nature. Also, she is the power that protects
your Sadhana from its many dangers and pitfalls. Thus, the first three
days, marking the first stage of destruction of Mala (impurities) and
determined effort and struggle to root out the evil Vasanas in your
mind, are set apart for the worship of the Destructive Aspect of the
Mother.
Worship Of Lakshmi
The Cultivation Of Virtues
Once you have accomplished your task on overcoming the negative side,
that of breaking down the impure Vasanas, propensities and old habits,
the next step is to build up a sublime spiritual personality, to acquire
positive qualities in place of the eliminated Asuric qualities. The
divine qualities—Daivi Sampat—that Lord Krishna enumerates
in the Bhagavad-Gita have to be acquired. The Sadhaka must cultivate
and develop all the auspicious qualities. He has to pile up immense
spiritual wealth to enable him to pay the price for the rare gem of
divine wisdom (Jnana Ratna). If this development of the opposite qualities
(Pratipaksha Bhavana) is not undertaken in right earnest, the old Asuric
nature will raise its head again and again. Hence, this stage is as
important in an aspirant’s career as the previous one. The essential
difference is that while the former is a ruthless, determined annihilation
of the filthy, egoistic, lower self, the latter is an orderly, steady,
calm and serene effort to develop purity. This pleasanter side of the
aspirant’s Sadhana is depicted by the worship of Mother Lakshmi.
She bestows on Her devotees the inexhaustible wealth or Daivi Sampat.
Lakshmi is the Sampat-Dayini aspect of Brahman. She is Purity Itself.
Thus, worship of Goddess Lakshmi is performed during the second set
of three days.
Worship Of Sarasvati
The Dawn Of Supreme Wisdom
Once the aspirant succeeds in routing out the evil propensities and
in developing Sattvic, pure, divine qualities, he becomes an Adhikari.
He is ready now to receive the Light of Supreme Wisdom. He is fit to
obtain Divine Knowledge. At this stage comes the devout worship of Sri
Sarasvati, who is Divine Knowledge personified, the embodiment of Brahma
Jnana. The sound of Her celestial Vina awakens the notes of the sublime
Mahavakyas and the Pranava. She bestows the knowledge of the Supreme
Nada and then gives full Atma-Jnana as represented by Her pure dazzling
snow-white apparel. To propitiate Sri Sarasvati, the giver of Jnana,
is therefore, the third stage.
The tenth day—Vijaya Dasami—marks the triumphant ovation
of the Jiva at having attained Jivanmukti through the descent of Knowledge
by the grace of Goddess Sarasvati. The Jiva rests in its own supreme
Self of Sat-Chit-Ananda (Existence-Knowledge-Bliss Absolute). This day
celebrates the victory, the achievement of the Goal. The banner of victory
flies aloft. Lo! I am He! I am He! Chidananda Rupah Sivoham, Sivoham;
Chidananda Rupah Sivoham, Sivoham.
An Arrangement That Ensures Spiritual Success
This arrangement has also a special significance in the aspirant’s
spiritual evolution. It marks the stages of evolution which are indispensable
for every Sadhaka, through which every one should pass. One naturally
leads to the other, and to short-circuit this would inevitably result
in a miserable failure. Nowadays, many ignorant Sadhakas aim straight
at the appropriation of Knowledge without the preliminaries of purification
and acquisition of Daivi Sampat, and complain that they are not progressing
in the path. How can they? Knowledge will not descend till the impurities
are washed out and purity is developed. The Sattvic plant can grow on
no impure soil.
Follow this arrangement and your efforts will be attended with sure
success. This is your path. No other path is known for salvation. Destroy
all evil qualities and develop their opposite virtues. By this process
you would soon bring yourself up to that perfection which would culminate
in the identity with Brahman, which is your Goal. Then all knowledge
will be yours, you will be omniscient and omnipotent, and you will feel
your omnipresence. You will see yourself in all. You will be a Jivanmukta.
You shall achieve eternal victory over the wheel of birth and death,
over the demon of Samsara. No more of pain, no more of misery, no more
of birth, no more of death for you. Victory, victory be yours!
Glory unto the Divine Mother! Let Her take you, step by step, to the
top of the spiritual ladder and unite you with the Lord!!
CHAPTER 7
Worship is the expression of devotion, reverence and love to the Lord,
of keen yearning to be united with Him and of spiritual thirsting to
hold conscious communion with Him. The devotee prays to the Lord for
granting him intense devotion and removing the veil of ignorance. He
pines for His benign grace. He constantly remembers His Name. He repeats
His Mantra. He sings His praise. He does Kirtana. He hears and recites
His Lilas. He lives in His Dhama in the company of His devotees. He
meditates on His form, His nature, His attributes and His Lilas. He
visualises the form of the Lord with closed eyes and enjoys supreme
peace and bliss.
Worship is the effort on the part of the Upasaka, i.e., he who does
Upasana or worship, to reach the proximity or presence of God or the
Supreme Self. Upasana literally means sitting near God.
Upasana is approaching the chosen ideal or object of worship by meditating
on it in accordance with the teachings of the Sastras and the Guru and
dwelling steadily in the current of that one thought, like a thread
of oil poured from one vessel to another (Tailadharavat). It consists
of all those observances and practices, physical and mental, by which
the aspirant or Jijnasu makes a steady progress in the realm of spirituality
and eventually realises in himself—in his own heart—the presence
of Godhead.
Worship of the Lord purifies the heart, generates harmonious vibrations,
steadies the mind, purifies and ennobles the emotions, harmonises the
five sheaths, and eventually leads to communion, fellowship or God-realisation.
Upasana helps the devotee to sit near the Lord or to commune with Him.
It fills the mind with Suddha Bhava and Prema or pure love for the Lord.
It gradually transmutes man into a divine being.
Upasana changes the mental substance, destroys Rajas and Tamas and
fills the mind with Sattva or purity. Upasana destroys Vasanas, Trishnas,
egoism, lust, hatred, anger, etc. Upasana turns the mind inward and
induces Antarmukha Vritti. It eventually brings the devotee face to
face with the Lord, frees the devotee from the wheel of births and deaths,
and confers on him immortality and freedom.
The mind becomes that on which it meditates in accordance with the
analogy of the wasp and the caterpillar (Bhramara-Kitaka Nyaya). Just
as you think, so you become. This is the immutable psychological law.
There is a mysterious or inscrutable power (Achintya Sakti) in Upasana
which makes the meditator and the meditated identical.
You will find in the Bhagavad-Gita: “But by devotion to Me alone,
I may thus be perceived, O Arjuna; and known and seen in essence and
entered, O Parantapa” (Ch. XI, 54).
Patanjali Maharshi emphasises in various places in his Raja Yoga Sutras,
on the importance of Upasana. For even a Raja Yogi, Upasana is necessary.
He has his own Ishta Devata or guiding Deity—Yogesvara Krishna
or Lord Siva. Self-surrender to God is an Anga (limb) of Raja Yoga and
Kriya Yoga. Patanjali says: “One can enter into Samadhi through
Upasana.”
Of all those things which are conducive to spiritual advancement, Adhyatmic
uplift and the acquisition of Dharma, Upasana is one which is not only
indispensably requisite, but eminently beneficial to all classes and
grades of people. It is easy too.
Eating, drinking, sleeping, fear, copulation, etc., are common in brutes
and human beings, but that which makes one a real man or a God-man is
the religious consciousness. He who leads a mere outward sensual life
without doing any Upasana is an animal only, though he wears outwardly
the form of a human being.
Upasana is of two kinds, viz., Pratika-Upasana and Ahamgraha-Upasana.
Pratika means a symbol. Pratika-Upasana is Saguna-Upasana.
Ahamgraha-Upasana is Nirguna-Upasana or meditation on the formless and
attributeless Akshara or transcendental Brahman. Meditation on idols,
Saligrama, pictures of Lord Rama, Lord Krishna, Lord Siva, Gayatri Devi,
etc., is Pratika-Upasana. The blue expansive sky, all-pervading ether,
all-pervading light of the sun, etc., are also Pratikas for abstract
meditation. Saguna-Upasana is concrete meditation. Nirguna-Upasana is
abstract meditation.
Hearing of the Lilas of the Lord, Kirtana or singing His Names, constant
remembrance of the Lord (Smarana), service of His feet, offering flowers,
prostration, prayer, chanting of Mantra, self-surrender, service of
Bhagavatas, service of humanity and country with Narayana-Bhava, etc.,
constitute Saguna-Upasana.
Chanting of Om with Atma-Bhava, service of humanity and country with
Atma-Bhava, mental Japa of Om with Atma or Brahma Bhava, meditation
on Soham or Sivoham or on the Mahavakyas such as Aham Brahma Asmi
or Tat Tvam Asi after sublating the illusory vehicles through
‘Neti, Neti’ doctrine, constitute Ahamgraha-Upasana or Nirguna-Upasana.
Saguna-Upasana is Bhakti Yoga or the Yoga of Devotion. Nirguna-Upasana
is Jnana Yoga or the Yoga of Knowledge. Worshippers of Saguna (the qualified)
Brahman and of Nirguna (the unqualified) Brahman reach the same goal.
But, the latter path is very hard, because the aspirant has to give
up attachment to the body (Dehabhimana) from the very beginning of his
spiritual practice. The Akshara or the Imperishable is very hard to
reach for those who are attached to their bodies. Further, it is extremely
difficult to fix the mind on the formless and attributeless Brahman.
Contemplation on the Akshara or Nirguna Brahman demands a very sharp,
one-pointed and subtle intellect.
The Yoga of Bhakti or Devotion is much easier than Jnana Yoga or philosophical
meditations. In Bhakti Yoga, the devotee establishes a near and dear
relationship with the Lord. He cultivates slowly any one of the six
Bhavas according to his temperament, taste and capacity.
Santa Bhava, Dasya Bhava, Sakhya Bhava, Vatsalya Bhava, Kanta Bhava
and Madhurya Bhava are the six kinds of attributes of devotees or Bhavas
towards God. The Bhavas differ in type and intensity of feeling. The
different Bhavas are arranged in order of their intensity. Dhruva and
Prahlada had the feeling of a child to its parents. This is Santa Bhava.
In Dasya Bhava, the devotee behaves like a servant. His Lord is his
master. Hanuman is an ideal servant of God. In Sakhya Bhava, there is
a sense of equality. Arjuna and Kuchela had this Bhava. In Vatsalya
Bhava, the devotee looks upon the Lord as his own child. Yasoda had
this Bhava for Sri Krishna. Kausalya had this Bhava for Sri Rama. Kanta
Bhava is the love of the wife towards the husband. Sita and Rukmini
had this Bhava. The culmination is reached in Madhurya Bhava. The lover
and the Beloved become one through the intensity of love. Radha and
Mira had this type of love.
The last Bhava is the highest culmination of Bhakti. It is merging
or absorption in the Lord. The devotee adores the Lord. He constantly
remembers Him. He sings His Name (Kirtana). He speaks of His glories.
He repeats His Name. He chants His Mantra. He prays and prostrates.
He hears His Lilas. He does total, ungrudging, unconditional surrender,
obtains His grace, holds communion with Him and gets absorbed in Him
eventually.
In Madhurya Bhava, there is the closest relationship between the devotee
and the Lord. There is no sensuality in Kanta and Madhurya Bhavas. There
is no tinge of carnality in them. Passionate people cannot understand
these two Bhavas as their minds are saturated with passion and lower
sexual appetite. Sufistic saints also have the Bhava of lover and the
Beloved, Madhurya Bhava. The Gita Govinda written by Jaya Deva is full
of Madhurya Rasa. The language of love which the mystic uses cannot
be comprehended by worldly persons. Only Gopis, Radha, Mira, Tukaram,
Narada, Hafiz and similar other great devotees of the Lord can understand
this language.
Puja is the common term for ritual worship, of which
there are numerous synonyms such as Archana, Vandana, Bhajana, etc.,
though some of these stress certain aspects of it. The object of worship
is the Ishta Devata or guiding Deity or the particular form of the Deity
whom the devotee worships—Narayana or Vishnu as such, or His forms
as Rama and Krishna in the case of Vaishnavas, Siva in His eight forms
in the case of Saivas and Devi in the case of Saktas.
The devotee selects sometimes his Kuladeva or Kuladevi, family Deva
or Devi, for his worship. Sometimes, the Devata is chosen for him by
his Guru or spiritual preceptor. Sometimes, he himself chooses that
Devata which most appeals to him. This form is his Ishta Devata.
An object is used in the outer Puja such as an image (Pratima), a picture,
or an emblem such as Saligrama in the case of Vishnu worship or Linga
in the case of worship of Siva.
Whilst all things may be the objects of worship, choice is naturally
made of those objects which, by reason of their effect on the mind,
are more fitted for it. An image or one of the useful emblems, is likely
to raise in the mind of the worshipper the thought of a Devata. Saligrama
stone induces easily concentration of mind. Everybody has got predilection
for a symbol, emblem or image. Idol or Murti (Vigraha), sun, fire, water,
Ganga, Saligrama and Linga are all symbols or Pratikas of God which
help the aspirants to attain one-pointedness of mind and purity of heart.
These are all personal inclinations in the worshipper due to his belief
in their special efficacy for him. Psychologically, all this means that
a particular mind finds that it works best in the direction desired
by means of particular instruments or emblems or images.
The vast bulk of humanity are either of impure or of weak mind. Therefore,
the object of worship must be pure for these people. The objects that
are capable of exciting lust and dislike must be avoided. But, a higher,
advanced Sadhaka who has a pure mind and who sees the divine presence
everywhere and in everything, can worship any kind of object.
In Puja, an image or picture representing some divine form is used
as the object of worship. The image is adored. All image, a Sila or
Vigraha or Murti, represents the particular Lord who is invoked in it.
A Linga represents Siva. It represents the secondless, formless Brahman.
The Sruti says: “Ekamevadvitiyam Brahma—The Brahman
is one alone, without a second.” There is no duality here. A Linga
is shining and attractive to the eyes. It helps concentration. Ravana
propitiated Siva and obtained boons by worshipping the Linga.
A Saligrama is an idol of Vishnu. Saligrama is the symbol of Vishnu.
There are images of Sri Rama, Sri Krishna, Karttikeya, Ganesa, Hanuman,
Dattatreya, Sita, Lakshmi, Parvati, Durga, Kali, Sarasvati, etc., according
to the taste of the particular devotee.
The images of Vishnu and of His Avataras, and the images of Sakti and
Siva, are the popular idols that are worshipped both in temples and
in the houses. The idols in the temples of Tirupati, Pandarpur, Palani,
Katirgama, etc., are powerful Deities. They are Pratyaksha Devatas.
They grant boons to the devotees, cure their ailments and give Darsana.
Wonderful Lilas are associated with these Deities. There is no polytheism
in Hinduism. Siva, Vishnu, Brahma and Sakti are different aspects of
one Lord.
God reveals Himself to His devotees in a variety of ways. He assumes
the very form which the devotee has chosen for his worship. If you worship
Him as Lord Hari with four hands, He will come to you as Hari. If you
adore Him as Siva, He will give you Darsana as Siva. If you worship
Him as Mother Durga or Kali, He will come to you as Durga or Kali. If
you worship Him as Lord Rama, Lord Krishna or Lord Dattatreya, He will
come to you as Rama, Krishna or Dattatreya. If you worship Him as Christ
or Allah, He will come to you as Christ or Allah.
You may worship Lord Siva or Lord Hari, Lord Ganesa or Lord Subrahmanya
or Lord Dattatreya, or anyone of the Avataras, Lord Rama or Lord Krishna,
Sarasvati or Lakshmi, Gayatri or Kali, Durga or Chandi. All are aspects
of one Isvara or Lord. Under whatever name and form, it is Isvara who
is adored. Worship goes to the Indweller, the Lord in the form. It is
ignorance to think that one form is superior to another. All forms are
one and the same. Siva, Vishnu, Gayatri, Rama, Krishna, Devi and Brahman
are one. All are adoring the same Isvara. The differences are only differences
of names due to differences in the worshippers, but not in the object
of adoration. It is only out of ignorance that different religionists
and different sects fight and quarrel amongst themselves.
The Idol—A Prop For The Spiritual Neophyte
Idol is a support for the neophyte. It is a prop of his spiritual childhood.
A form or image is necessary for worship in the beginning. It is an
external symbol of God for worship. It is a reminder of God. The material
image calls up the mental idea. Steadiness of mind is obtained by image-worship.
The worshipper will have to associate the ideas of infinity, omnipotence,
omniscience, purity, perfection, freedom, holiness, truth and omnipresence.
It is not possible for all to fix the mind on the Absolute or the Infinite.
A concrete form is necessary for the vast majority for practising concentration.
To behold God everywhere and to practise the presence of God is not
possible for the ordinary man. Idol-worship is the easiest form of worship
for the modern man.
A symbol is absolutely indispensable for fixing the mind. The mind
wants a prop to lean upon. It cannot have a conception of the Absolute
in the initial stages. Without the help of some external aid, in the
initial stages, the mind cannot be centralised. In the beginning, concentration
or meditation is not possible without a symbol.
Everyone An Idol-Worshipper
There is no reference to worship of idols in the Vedas. The Puranas
and the Agamas give descriptions of idol-worship both in the houses
and in the temples. Idol-worship is not peculiar to Hinduism. Christians
worship the Cross. They have the image of the Cross in their mind. The
Mohammedans keep the image of the Kaba stone when they kneel and do
prayers. The people of the whole world, save a few Yogis and Vedantins,
are all worshippers of idols. They keep some image or the other in the
mind.
The mental image also is a form of idol. The difference is not one
of kind, but only one of degree. All worshippers, however intellectual
they may be, generate a form in the mind and make the mind dwell on
that image.
Everyone is an idol-worshipper. Pictures, drawings, etc., are only
forms of Pratima or the idol. A gross mind needs a concrete symbol as
a prop or Alambana and a subtle mind requires an abstract symbol. Even
a Vedantin has the symbol OM for fixing the wandering mind. It is not
only the pictures or images in stone and in wood, that are idols but
dialectics and leaders also become idols. So, why condemn idolatry?
A Medium For Establishing Communion With God
Idols are not the idle fancies of sculptors, but shining channels through
which the heart of the devotee is attracted to and flows towards God.
Though the image is worshipped, the devotee feels the presence of the
Lord in it and pours out his devotion unto it. It is the appalling ignorance
of the modern sensual man that clouds his vision and prevents him from
seeing Divinity in lovely and enchanting idols of His form. The very
scientific advances of this century ought to convince you of the glory
of idol-worship. How are the songsters and orators confined to a small
box-like thing to be called a radio? It is a mere piece of a mechanical
lifeless structure which breaks into a thousand pieces if you throw
it away violently; and yet, if you know how to handle it, you can hear
through it, the music that is being played several thousands of miles
away and the discourse that is being delivered in the remotest part
of the globe. Even as you can catch the sound-waves of people all over
the world through the radio receiving set, it is possible to commune
with the all-pervading Lord through the medium of an idol. The divinity
of the all-pervading God is vibrant in every atom of creation. There
is not a speck of space where He is not. Why do you then say that He
is not in the idols?
There are others who would glibly say: “Oh, God is all-pervading
formless Being. How can He be confined to this idol?” Are these
people ever conscious of His omnipresence? Do they always see Him and
Him alone in everything? No. It is their ego that prevents them from
bowing to the idols of God and, with that motive, put this lame excuse
forward!
Empty vessels only make much sound. A practical man who does meditation
and worship, who is full of knowledge and real devotion, keeps always
silence. He influences and teaches others through silence. He only knows
whether a Murti is necessary in the beginning for concentration or not.
However intellectual one may be, he cannot concentrate without the
help of some symbol in the beginning. An intellectual and learned person,
on account of his pride and vanity only says: “I do not like a
Murti. I do not wish to concentrate on a form.” He cannot concentrate
on the formless one. He thinks that people will laugh at him when they
come to know that he is meditating on a form. He never does any meditation
on the formless one. He simply talks and argues and poses. He wastes
his life in unnecessary discussions only. An ounce of practice is better
than tons of theories. Intellect is a hindrance in the vast majority
of intellectual persons. They say that the existence of Brahman is a
guess-work, Samadhi is a bluff of the mind and Self-realisation is an
imagination of the Vedantins. Deluded souls! They are steeped in ignorance.
They are carried away by their secular knowledge which is mere husk
when compared to the Knowledge of the Self. There is no hope of salvation
for such people. First, their wrong Samskaras should be flushed by good
Samskaras through Satsanga. Then only they will realise their mistakes.
May the Lord bestow on them clear understanding and thirsting for real
knowledge!
A Symbol Of God
Pratima, the idol, is a substitute or symbol. The image in a temple,
though it is made of stone, wood or metal, is precious for a devotee
as it bears the mark of his Lord, as it stands for something which he
holds holy and eternal. A flag is only a small piece of painted cloth,
but it stands for a soldier for something that he holds very dear. He
is prepared to give up his life in defending his flag. Similarly, the
image is very dear to a devotee. It speaks to him in its own language
of devotion. Just as the flag arouses martial valour in the soldier,
so also the image arouses devotion in the devotee. The Lord is superimposed
on the image and the image generates divine thoughts in the worshipper.
A piece of ordinary white paper or coloured paper has no value. You
throw it away. But, if there is the stamp of the Government on the paper
(currency note), you keep it safe in your money-purse or trunk. Even
so, an ordinary piece of stone has no value for you. You throw it away.
But, if you behold the stone Murti of Lord Krishna at Pandarpur or any
other Murti in shrines, you bow your head with folded hands, because
there is the stamp of the Lord on the stone. The devotee superimposes
on the stone Murti his own Beloved Lord and all His attributes.
When you worship an image, you do not say: “This image has come
from Jaipur. It was brought by Prabhu Singh. Its weight is 50 lbs. It
is made of white marble. It has cost me Rs. 500/-.” You superimpose
all the attributes of the Lord on the image and pray: “O Antaryamin
(Inner Ruler)! You are all-pervading. You are omnipotent, omniscient,
all-merciful. You are the source for everything. You are self-existent.
You are Sat-Chit-Ananda. You are eternal, unchanging. You are the Life
of my life, Soul of my soul! Give me light and knowledge! Let me dwell
in Thee for ever.” When your devotion and meditation become intense
and deep, you do not see the stone image. You behold the Lord only who
is Chaitanya. Image-worship is very necessary for beginners.
An Integral Part Of Virat
For a beginner, Pratima is an absolute necessity. By worshipping an
idol, Isvara is pleased. The Pratima is made up of five elements. Five
elements constitute the body of the Lord. The idol remains an idol,
but the worship goes to the Lord.
If you shake hands with a man, he is highly pleased. You have touched
only a small part of his body and yet he is happy. He smiles and welcomes
you. Even so, the Lord is highly pleased when a small portion of His
Virat (cosmic) body is worshipped. An idol is a part of the body of
the Lord. The whole world is His body, Virat form. The devotion goes
to the Lord. The worshipper superimposes on the image the Lord and all
His attributes. He does Shodasopachara for the idol, the sixteen kinds
of paying respects or service to the Lord. The presence of the Deity
is invoked (Avahana). Then a seat (Asana) is offered. Then the feet
are washed (Padya). Then offering of water is given (Arghya). Arghya
is offering hospitality. Then comes bathing (Snana). Then the image
is dressed (Vastra). Then comes the investiture with the sacred thread
(Yajnopavita). Then sandal paste (Chandana) is offered. Then comes offering
of flowers (Pushpa). They are the symbols of the heart-flowers of devotion,
love and reverence. Then incense is burnt (Dhupa). Then a lamp is lit
and waved before the Deity (Dipa). Then food is offered (Naivedya).
Then betel is offered (Tambula). Then camphor is burnt (Nirajana). Then
Svarnapushpa (gift of gold) is offered. In the end, the Deity is bidden
farewell to (Visarjana). In these external forms of worship, the inner
love finds expression. The wandering mind is fixed now in this form
of worship. The aspirant gradually feels the nearness of the Lord. He
attains purity of heart and slowly annihilates his egoism.
To the worshipper who believes the symbol, any kind of image is the
body of the Lord under the form of stone, clay, brass, picture, Saligrama,
etc. Such worship can never be idolatry. All matter is a manifestation
of God. God is present in everything which exists. Everything is an
object of worship, for all is a manifestation of God who is therein
worshipped. The very act of worship implies that the object of worship
is superior and conscious. This way of looking at things must be attained
by the devotee. The untutored mind must be trained to view things in
the above manner.
Idol-Worship Develops Devotion
Idol-worship makes concentration of man simpler and easier. You can
bring before your mind’s eye the great Lilas the Lord has played
in His particular Avatara in which you view Him. This is one of the
easiest modes of Self-realisation.
Just as the picture of a famous warrior evokes heroism in your heart,
so also a look at the picture of God will elevate your mind to divine
heights. Just as the child develops the maternal Bhava (mother-feeling)
of the future caressing, nursing, protecting mother by playing with
its imaginary toy-child made up of rags and suckling the child in an
imaginary manner, so also the devotee develops the feeling of devotion
by worshipping the Pratima and concentrating on it.
Regular Worship Unveils The Divinity In The Idol
Regular worship (Puja) and other modes of demonstrating our inner feeling
of recognition of Divinity in the idol unveil the Divinity latent in
it. This is truly a wonder and a miracle. The picture comes to life.
The idol speaks. It will answer your questions and solve your problems.
The God in you has the power to awaken the latent Divinity in the idol.
It is like a powerful lens that focuses the sun’s rays on to a
bundle of cotton. The lens is not fire and the cotton is not fire either
nor can the sun’s rays, by themselves, burn the cotton. When the
three are brought together in a particular manner, fire is generated
and the cotton is burnt. Similar is the case with the idol, the Sadhaka
and the all-pervading Divinity. Puja makes the idol shine with the divine
resplendence. God is then enshrined in the idol. From here, He will
protect you in a special manner. The idol will perform miracles. The
place where it is installed is at once transformed into a temple, nay,
a Vaikuntha or Kailasa in reality. Those who live in such a place are
freed from miseries, from diseases, from failures and from Samsara itself.
The awakened Divinity in the idol acts as a guardian angel blessing
all, conferring the highest good on those who bow to it.
The Image, A Mass Of Chaitanya
The idol is only a symbol of the Divine. A devotee does not behold
therein a block of stone or a mass of metal. It is an emblem of God
for him. He visualises the Indwelling Presence in the Murti or image.
All the Saiva Nayanars, saints of South India, attained God-realisation
through worship of the Linga, the image of Lord Siva. For a devotee,
the image is a mass of Chaitanya or consciousness. He draws inspiration
from the image. The image guides him. It talks to him. It assumes human
form to help him in a variety of ways. The image of Lord Siva in the
temple at Madurai in South India helped the fuel-cutter and the old
woman. The image in the temple at Tirupati assumed human form and gave
witness in the court to help His devotees. There are marvels and mysteries.
Only the devotees understand these.
When Idols Became Alive
For a Bhakta or a sage, there is no such thing as Jada or insentient
matter. Everything is Vasudeva or Chaitanya—Vasudevah Sarvam
Iti. The devotee beholds actually the Lord in the idol. Narsi Mehta
was put to the test by a king. The king said: “O Narsi, if you
are a sincere devotee of Lord Krishna, if as you say the idol is Lord
Krishna Himself, let this idol move.” According to the prayer of
Narsi Mehta, the idol moved. The sacred bull Nandi before Siva’s
idol took the food offered by Tulsidas. The Murti played with Mira Bai.
It was full of life and Chaitanya for her.
When Appayya Dikshitar went to the Tirupati temple in South India,
the Vaishnavas refused him admission. The next morning they found the
Vishnu Murti in the temple changed into Siva Murti. The Mahant was much
astonished and startled, asked pardon and prayed to Appayya Dikshitar
to change the Murti again into Vishnu Murti.
Kanaka Dasa was a great devotee of Lord Krishna in Udipi, in the district
of South Kanara, in South India. He was not allowed to enter the temple
on account of his low birth. Kanaka Dasa went round the temple and saw
a small window at the back of the temple. He seated himself in front
of the window. He was soon lost in singing songs in praise of Lord Krishna.
Many people gathered round him. They were very much attracted by the
sweet melody of his music and the depth of his devotion. Lord Krishna
turned round to enable Kanaka Dasa to get His Darsana. The priests were
struck with wonder. Even today, pilgrims are shown the window and the
place where Kanaka Dasa sat and sang.
The Murti is the same as the Lord, for it is the vehicle of the expression
of the Mantra-Chaitanya which is the Devata. The same attitude should
the devotee have in regard to the Murti in the temple, which he would
evince if the Lord would appear before him in person and speak to him
in articulate sound.
Vedanta And Idol-Worship
A pseudo-Vedantin feels himself ashamed to bow or prostrate himself
before an idol in the temple. He feels that his Advaita will evaporate
if he prostrates himself. Study the lives of the reputed Tamil saints,
Appar, Sundarar, Sambandhar, etc. They had the highest Advaitic realisation.
They saw Lord Siva everywhere and yet they visited all temples of Siva,
prostrated before the idol and sang hymns which are on record now. The
sixty-three Nayanar saints practised Charya and Kriya only
and attained God-realisation thereby. They swept the floor of the temple,
collected flowers, made garlands for the Lord and put on lights in the
temple. They were illiterate, but attained the highest realisation.
They were practical Yogis and their hearts were saturated with pure
devotion. They were embodiments of Karma Yoga. All practised the Yoga
of Synthesis. The idol in the temple was all Chaitanya or Consciousness
for them. It was not a mere block of stone.
Madhusudana Swami, who had Advaitic realisation, who beheld oneness
of the Self and who had Advaitic Bhava, was intensely attached to the
form of Lord Krishna with flute in His hands.
Tulasidas realised the all-pervading essence. He had cosmic consciousness.
He communed with the all-pervading, formless Lord. And yet, his passion
for Lord Rama with bow in His hand did not vanish. When he had been
to Vrindavana and saw the Murti of Lord Krishna with flute in His hands,
he said: “I will not bow my head to this form.” At once Lord
Krishna’s form assumed the form of Lord Rama. Then only he bowed
his head. Tukaram also had the same cosmic experience as that of Tulasidas.
He sings in his Abhanga: “I see my Lord all-pervading, just as
sweetness pervades the sugar-cane;” and yet, he always speaks of
his Lord Vitthala of Pandarpur with His hands on the hips. Mira also
realised her identity with the all-pervading Krishna, and yet she was
not tired of repeating again and again: “My Giridhara Nagar.”
From the above facts, we can clearly infer that one can realise God
through worship of Murti or idol; that the worship of the Lord in Saguna
form is a great aid for the realisation of the Lord in His all-pervading,
formless aspect also; that the worship of the Murti is very essential
for the purpose of concentration and meditation in the beginning and
that such a worship is not in anyway a hindrance to the attainment of
God-consciousness. Those who vehemently attack Murti Puja are groping
in extreme darkness and ignorance, and they have no real knowledge of
Puja and worship. They enter into unnecessary vain debates and discussion
against Murti Puja to show that they are learned persons. They have
not done any real Sadhana at all. They are persons who have made idle
talking and tall talk their habit and profession. They have ruined themselves.
They have unsettled the minds of countless persons and ruined them also.
The whole world worships symbols and Murtis only in some form or the
other. The mind is disciplined in the beginning by fixing it on a concrete
object or symbol. When it is rendered steady and subtle, it can be fixed
later on, on an abstract idea such as ‘Aham Brahma Asmi.’
When one advances in meditation, the form melts in the formless and
he becomes one with the formless essence. Image worship is not contrary
to the view of Vedanta. It is rather a help.
Those who have not understood the philosophy and significance of idol-worship
will have, now at least, a clear understanding of them. Their eyes will
be opened now. Ignorant persons only, who have not studied Sastras and
who have not associated with Yogis, sages and Bhaktas, raise unnecessary
arguments against idol-worship.
Bhakti is of two kinds, viz., higher Bhakti or Para-Bhakti, and lower
Bhakti or ritualistic Bhakti. Ritualistic worship is Vaidhi or Gauni
Bhakti. It is formal Bhakti. Vaidhi Bhakti is the lower type of devotion
depending on external aids. The mind becomes purer and purer. The aspirant
gradually develops love for God through ritualistic worship. He who
does ritualistic worship rings bells, adores a Pratika (symbol) or Pratima
(image), does Puja with flowers and sandal paste, burns incense, waves
light before the image, offers Naivedya or food for God, etc.
Mukhya Bhakti or Para Bhakti is advanced type of devotion. It is higher
Bhakti. It transcends all convention. A devotee of this type knows no
rule. He does not perform any external worship. He beholds his Lord
everywhere, in every object. His heart is saturated with love for God.
The whole world is Vrindavana for him. His state is ineffable. He attains
the acme of bliss. He radiates love, purity and joy wherever he goes
and inspires all who come in contact with him.
The aspirant who worships the idol in the beginning beholds the Lord
everywhere and develops Para Bhakti. From Vaidhi Bhakti, he passes on
to Ragatmika Bhakti or Prema Bhakti. He beholds the whole world as the
Lord. The ideas of good and bad, right and wrong, etc., vanish. He sees
the Lord in a rogue, dacoit, cobra, scorpion, ant, dog, tree, log of
wood, block of stone, sun, moon, stars, fire, water, earth, etc. His
vision or experience baffles description. Glory to such exalted Bhaktas
who are veritable Gods on earth, who live to lift others from the quagmire
of Samsara and save them from the clutches of death!
Hinduism leads the aspirants gradually from material images to mental
images, from the diverse mental-images to the one Personal God, and
from the Personal God to the Impersonal Absolute or the Transcendental
Nirguna Brahman.
How sublime is Hindu philosophy and Hindu mode of worship! It does
not stop or end with worship of idol alone. The Sadhaka is taken, step
by step, to higher stages of devotion and Samadhi or communion, through
the worship of the idol. Though he worships the idol, he has to keep
before his mental eye the all-pervading Lord. He has to feel His presence
in his heart and in all objects also. Even in worshipping a small idol,
he has to repeat the Purusha-Sukta and to think of the Virat Purusha
with countless heads, countless eyes, countless hands, etc., who extends
beyond the universe, the Lord or the Atman who dwells in the hearts
of all beings. The same man who burns incense, scented sticks and camphor
before the idol says: “The sun does not shine there nor the moon
nor the stars nor the lightning. How then could the little fire shine
there? All shine after Him. His effulgence alone illumines the whole
world.” The ways and rules of worship—Puja Vidhi—and
the secrets of worship that are described in the Hindu scriptures, are
scientifically accurate and highly rational. It is only ignorant people
who have not studied the scriptures and who have not associated with
the devotees and great souls, who vilify worship of idols or Murtis.
Every other religion lays certain fixed dogmas and attempts to force
people to follow them. It has only one kind of drug to treat several
diseases. It gives only one kind of food for all and for all conditions.
It places before the followers only one coat. It must fit Albert, Atkinson,
Ahluwalia, Antony and Abdul Rehman. The Hindus know that the images,
crosses and crescents are simply so many symbols to fix the mind in
the beginning for developing concentration, so many concrete pegs to
hang their spiritual ideas and convictions on. The symbol is not necessary
for everyone. It is not compulsory in Hinduism. It is not needed for
an advanced Yogi or sage. Symbol is like the slate which is useful for
a boy of the first standard. Those who are not in need of it have no
right to say that it is wrong. If they say that it is wrong, they only
betray their ignorance.
There is nothing wrong in worshipping an idol in the beginning. You
must superimpose God and His attributes on the idol. You must think
of the Antar-Atman hidden in the idol. The aspirant gradually begins
to feel that the Lord he worships is in the idol, in the hearts of all
creatures and in all the names and forms of this universe. He begins
to feel His presence everywhere.
Idol-worship is only the beginning of religion. Certainly it is not
its end. The same Hindu scriptures, which prescribe idol-worship for
beginners, speak of meditation on the Infinite or the Absolute and contemplation
of the significance of Tat Tvam Asi Mahavakya, for advanced aspirants.
There are different stages of worship. The first is the worship of
idols. The next is recitation of Mantras and offering of prayers. Mental
worship is superior to worship with flowers. Meditation on the Absolute
or the attributeless Nirguna Brahman is the best of all.
The supreme state is Self-realisation or Brahma-sakshatkara. The second
in rank is meditation. The Yogi practises Sadhana or unceasing meditation
on the Supreme Self. The third is the worship of symbols. The fourth
is the performance of rituals and pilgrimages to holy places. The Sastras
and Gurus are like kind mothers. They take hold of the hands of the
aspirants, take them step by step, stage by stage, till they are established
in Nirvikalpa Samadhi or superconscious state. They prescribe gross
forms of Sadhana or spiritual practices for the neophytes or beginners
with gross mind and give lessons on abstract meditation for the advanced
aspirants who are endowed with pure, subtle and sharp intellect.
Each marks a stage of progress. The human soul makes different kinds
of attempts to grasp and realise the Infinite or the Absolute according
to his strength or degree of evolution. He soars higher and higher,
gathers more and more strength, and eventually merges himself in the
Supreme and attains oneness or identity.
Glory to the Hindu Rishis and the Hindu scriptures who take the aspirants
from the lower to the higher form of worship, stage by stage, step by
step, and ultimately help them to rest in the attributeless, all-pervading,
formless, timeless, spaceless Brahman or the infinite and unconditioned
Brahman of the Upanishads.
Beloved children of the Lord! Shed your ignorant disbelief this moment.
Enshrine supreme, unshakable, living faith in your heart this very moment.
Recall to your mind the glorious examples of Sri Mira, Sri Ramakrishna
Paramahamsa and the South Indian Alvars and Nayanars. They believed
and they reaped the rich spiritual harvests. You too can enjoy great
peace, happiness and prosperity here, and attain Him here and now, if
you have this faith in idol-worship.
Though you may perform external worship at regular intervals, let the
internal worship of the Lord in your heart be constant and unbroken.
Here worship attains completeness. Life is divine worship. May you realise
the significance of the universal worship of the Virat in daily
life, and performing it, attain the summum bonum of life. May
the Lord bless you all.
CHAPTER 8
The four main spiritual paths for God-realisation are Karma Yoga, Bhakti
Yoga, Raja Yoga and Jnana Yoga. Karma Yoga is suitable for a man of
active temperament, Bhakti Yoga for a man of devotional temperament,
Raja Yoga for a man of mystic temperament, and Jnana Yoga for a man
of rational and philosophical temperament, or a man of enquiry.
Mantra Yoga, Laya Yoga or Kundalini Yoga, Lambika Yoga and Hatha Yoga,
are other Yogas. Yoga, really, means union with God. The
practice of Yoga leads to communion with the Lord. Whatever may be the
starting point, the end reached is the same.
Karma Yoga is the way of selfless service. The selfless worker is called
the Karma-Yogin. Bhakti Yoga is the path of exclusive devotion to the
Lord. He who seeks union through love or devotion is called the Bhakti-Yogin.
Raja Yoga is the way of self-restraint. He who seeks to have union with
the Lord through mysticism is called the Raja-Yogin. Jnana Yoga is the
path of wisdom. He who seeks to unite himself with the Supreme Self
through philosophy and enquiry is called the Jnana-Yogin.
(Duty for Duty’s Sake)
Karma Yoga is the path of action. It is the path of disinterested service.
It is the way that leads to the attainment of God through selfless work.
It is the Yoga of renunciation of the fruits of actions.
Karma Yoga teaches us how to work for work’s sake—unattached—and
how to utilise to the best advantage the greater part of our energies.
‘Duty for Duty’s Sake’ is the motto of a Karma-Yogin.
Work is worship for the practitioners of Karma Yoga. Every work is turned
into an offering unto the Lord. The Karma Yogin is not bound by the
Karmas, as he consecrates the fruits of his actions to the Lord. Yogah
Karmasu Kausalam—Yoga is skill in action.
Generally, a work brings as its effect or fruit either pleasure or
pain. Each work adds a link to our bondage of Samsara and brings repeated
births. This is the inexorable Law of Karma. But, through the practice
of Karma Yoga, the effects of Karmas can be wiped out. Karma becomes
barren. The same work, when done with the right mental attitude, right
spirit and right will through Yoga, without attachment and expectation
of fruits, without the idea of agency or doership, with a mind balanced
in success and failure (Samatvam Yoga Uchyate), does not add
a link to our bondage. On the contrary, it purifies our heart and helps
us to attain salvation through the descent of divine light or dawn of
wisdom.
A rigid moral discipline and control of senses are indispensable for
the practice of Karma Yoga.
Brahmacharya is, indeed, essential. Cultivation of virtues such as
tolerance, adaptability, sympathy, mercy, equal vision, balance of mind,
cosmic love, patience, perseverance, humility, generosity, nobility,
self-restraint, control of anger, non-violence, truthfulness, moderation
in eating, drinking and sleeping, simple living and endurance, is very
necessary.
Every man should do his duties in accordance with his own Varna and
Asrama, caste and station as well as stage in life. There is no benefit
in abandoning one’s own work in preference to another’s work.
Some people think that Karma Yoga is an inferior type of Yoga. They
think that carrying water, cleansing plates, serving food to the poor
and sweeping the floor are menial works. This is a sad mistake. They
have not understood the technique and glory of Karma Yoga. Lord Krishna,
the Lord of the three worlds, acted the part of charioteer of Arjuna.
He also acted the part of a cowherd.
(Love for Love’s Sake)
Bhakti is intense love of God. Bhakti Yoga is the path of devotion.
It appeals to the majority of mankind. ‘Love for Love’s
Sake’ is the motto or formula of a Bhakti-Yogin. God is an
embodiment of love. You will have to attain Him by loving Him. God can
be realised only by means of a love as ardent and all-absorbing as the
conjugal passion. Love for God must be gradually cultivated.
He who loves God has neither wants nor sorrows. He does not hate any
being or object. He never takes delight in sensual objects. He includes
everyone in the warm embrace of his love.
Kama (worldly desires) and Trishna (cravings) are enemies
of devotion. So long as there is any trace of desire in your mind for
sensual objects, you cannot have an intense longing for God.
Atma-Nivedana is total, ungrudging, absolute self-surrender to the
Lord. Atma-Nivedana is the highest rung in the ladder of Nava-vidha
Bhakti, or nine modes of devotion. Atma-Nivedana is Prapatti or Saranagati.
The devotee becomes one with the Lord through Prapatti. He obtains the
divine grace or Prasada.
Love of God and the rapturous ecstasy enjoyed by fellowship with God,
cannot be adequately described in words. It is as if a dumb man, who
had tasted some palatable food, could not speak about it. It could be
revealed only to the chosen few. He who has once experienced love will
see that alone, hear that alone and speak of that alone, because he
constantly thinks of that alone.
Bhakti is one of the chief spiritual sciences. He is wealthy indeed,
who has love for the Lord. There is no sorrow other than lack of devotion
to the Lord. There is no right course except love of the devotee for
the Lord. The Name, qualities and Lilas of the Lord are the chief things
to be remembered. The lotus-feet of the Lord are the chief objects of
meditation. The devotee drinks the nectar of Prema or divine love.
There are no distinctions of caste, creed, family, colour or race among
the devotees. God does not look into these things. He looks to the purity
of heart of the devotees. Anyone can become a devotee of the Lord. Nanda,
an untouchable; Rai Das, a cobbler; Kannappa, a hunter; Sena, a barber;
Kabir, a Moslem weaver; and Sabari, a Bhilini were all devotees of the
Lord, and were great saints. Kannappa, an illiterate barbarian who poured
water from his mouth on the Linga and who offered swine’s flesh,
became the best among the Bhaktas. The Vaishnava Alvars and the Saiva
Nayanars, of South India, were from different classes of society.
(Discipline of the Mind)
Raja Yoga is the path that leads to union with the Lord through self-restraint
and control of mind. Raja Yoga teaches how to control the senses and
the mental Vrittis or thought-waves that arise from the mind, how to
develop concentration and how to commune with God. There is physical
discipline in Hatha Yoga, whereas in Raja Yoga, there is discipline
of the mind.
The Yoga Of Eight Limbs
Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi
are the eight limbs of Raja Yoga.
Yama and Niyama constitute the ethical discipline which purifies the
heart. Yama consists of Ahimsa (non-injury), Satya (truthfulness), Brahmacharya
(continence), Asteya (non-stealing) and Aparigraha (non-receiving of
gifts conducive to luxury). All virtues are rooted in Ahimsa.
Niyama is observance. It comprises Saucha (internal and external purity),
Santosha (contentment), Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (study of scriptures
and repetition of Mantra) and Isvara-pranidhana (self-surrender to God).
He who is established in Yama and Niyama will have quick progress in
the practice of Yoga.
Asana, Pranayama and Pratyahara are preliminary accessories to Yoga.
Asana is steady pose. Pranayama is regulation of breath. This produces
serenity and steadiness of mind and good health. Pratyahara is abstraction
or withdrawal of the senses from their objects. You must practise Pratyahara.
Then only you can look within and can have introversion.
Dharana is concentration of the mind on any object, or internal Chakra,
or Ishta-Devata or tutelary Deity. Then comes Dhyana, meditation or
an unceasing flow of ideas connected with one object. This leads to
Samadhi, where the meditator and the meditated become one. All the Vrittis
or waves of the mind subside. The mind ceases functioning. All the Samskaras,
impressions and Vasanas (tendencies and subtle desires) are burnt in
toto. The Yogi is freed from births and deaths. He attains Kaivalva
or final Liberation (Absolute Independence).
Concentration—The Key To Success
How powerful is the searchlight! When the sun’s rays are concentrated
through a lens, they can burn cotton. Even so, when the dissipated rays
of the mind are collected, you can work wonders. You can know all the
secrets of nature through the powerful searchlight of mind.
A scientist sits in his laboratory, concentrates all the powers of
his mind and brings them into one focus and throws them on the objects
of his research and investigation. He gets all knowledge about the elements,
etc. The whole hidden knowledge of nature is revealed unto him like
the Amalaka fruit in the palm of his hand. The astronomer does the same
thing. He concentrates on the stars and planets through his telescope
and attains knowledge of the stars. Radio, wireless telegraphy, television,
gramophone, telephone, steam engine, etc., are all things invented through
deep concentration.
Without concentration, you cannot have success in any walk of life
or spiritual pursuit. A cook can prepare things efficiently if he has
concentration. If there is no concentration, he spoils the preparations.
A surgeon in the operation theatre needs perfect concentration. The
captain of a steamer must possess a great deal of concentration. A tailor,
a professor, a barrister, a student—all must possess concentration.
Then only they can have success in their profession. All great souls,
all master-minds who have done great work in this world, had perfect
concentration.
In a worldly man, the rays of the mind are scattered in various directions.
His mind is jumping like a monkey. It is ever restless. He thinks of
money, wife, children, property, houses, etc. His mind is ever engaged
in earning money and possessing objects of his desires. He has not a
bit of concentration. He cannot look within and introspect. His mind
is full of outgoing tendencies.
The Yogi concentrates on the Chakras, mind, sun, stars, elements, etc.,
and attain superhuman knowledge. He obtains mastery over the elements.
The power of concentration is the only key to open the treasure-house
of knowledge.
Concentration cannot come within a week or a month. It takes some time.
Regularity in the practice of concentration is of paramount importance.
Brahmacharya, a cool and congenial place, company of saints and Sattvic
diet are auxiliaries in concentration.
Concentration and meditation lead to Samadhi or Superconscious Experience,
which has several stages of ascent, as attended or not attended with
deliberation (Vitarka), analysis (Vichara), joy (Ananda) and self-awareness
(Asmita). Kaivalya, or Supreme Independence, is, thus, attained.
The Obstacle Of Siddhis Or Supernatural Powers
Siddhis or supernatural powers manifest themselves when the Yogi advances
in his Yogic practices. These Siddhis such as clairvoyance, clairaudience,
etc., are all obstacles in his path. He should shun them ruthlessly
and march forward direct to his goal, viz., Asamprajnata or Nirvikalpa
Samadhi. Real spirituality has nothing to do with these powers, which
are by-products of concentration. He who runs after these Siddhis is
a big worldly man or big householder. He may have a downfall, if he
is not cautious.
(The Path of Spiritual Insight)
Jnana Yoga is the path of knowledge. Moksha is attained through Knowledge
of Brahman. Release is achieved through realisation of the identity
of the individual soul with the Supreme Soul or Brahman. The cause for
bondage and suffering is Avidya or ignorance. The little Jiva foolishly
imagines, on account of ignorance, that he is separate from Brahman.
Avidya acts as a veil or screen and prevents the Jiva from knowing his
real, divine nature. Knowledge of Brahman or Brahma-Jnana removes this
veil and makes the Jiva rest in his own Sat-Chit-Ananda Svarupa (Essential
Nature as Existence-Consciousness-Bliss Absolute).
Spiritual Insight And Intellectual Knowledge
The Jnana-Yogin realises that Brahman is the Life of his life, the
Soul of his soul. He feels and knows that God is his own Self. He realises
that he is one with the Eternal through spiritual insight or intuition,
Aparoksha Anubhuti or divine perception, but not through mere study
of books or dogmas or theories. Religion is realisation for him now.
It is not mere talk. He plunges himself in the deep recesses of his
heart through constant and intense meditation—Nididhyasana—and
gets the wonderful pearl of Atman, a wonderful treasure much more valuable
than all the wealth of the world.
Jnana is not mere intellectual knowledge. It is not hearing or acknowledging.
It is not mere intellectual assent. It is direct realisation of oneness
or unity with the Supreme Being. It is Para Vidya. Intellectual conviction
alone will not lead you to Brahma-Jnana (Knowledge of the Absolute).
The student of Jnana Yoga first equips himself with four means, viz.,
discrimination (Viveka), dispassion (Vairagya), the sixfold virtues
(Shat-Sampat)—viz., tranquillity (Sama), restraint (Dama), satiety
or renunciation (Uparati), endurance (Titiksha), faith (Sraddha) and
concentration (Samadhana)—and strong yearning for liberation (Mumukshutva).
Then he hears the scriptures by sitting at the lotus-feet of a Guru,
who is not only learned in the sacred scriptures (Srotriya), but is
also one who is himself well-established in Brahman (Brahma-Nishtha).
Afterwards, the student practises reflection, which completely dispels
all doubts. Then he practises deep meditation on Brahman and attains
Brahma-Sakshatkara. He becomes a Jivanmukta or liberated sage. He is
released even while he is in this body.
There are seven stages of Jnana or Knowledge: viz.; Aspiration for
the Right (Subhechha), Philosophical enquiry (Vicharana), Subtlety of
mind (Tanumanasi), Attainment of Light (Sattvapatti), Inner Detachment
(Asamsakti), Spiritual Vision (Padarthabhavana) and Supreme Freedom
(Turiya).
The Analogy Of The Two Birds
There are two birds on the same tree. One is perched at the top and
the other below. The bird which is sitting on the top is perfectly serene,
silent and majestic at all times. It is ever blissful. The other bird,
which is perching on the lower branches, eats the sweet and bitter fruits
by turns. It dances in joy sometimes. It is miserable at other times.
It rejoices now and weeps after some time. Sometimes it tastes an extremely
bitter fruit and gets disgusted. It looks up and beholds the other wonderful
bird with golden plumage which is ever blissful. It also wishes to become
like the bird with golden plumage, but soon forgets everything. Again
it begins to eat the sweet and bitter fruits. It eats another fruit
that is exceedingly bitter and feels very miserable. It again tries
to become like the upper bird. Gradually, it abandons eating the fruits,
and becomes serene and blissful like the upper bird. The upper bird
is God or Brahman. The lower bird is Jiva or the individual soul who
reaps the fruits of his Karmas, viz., pleasure and pain. He gets knocks
and blows in the battle of life. He rises up and again falls down as
the senses drag him down. Gradually he develops Vairagya (dispassion)
and discrimination, turns his mind towards God, practises meditation,
attains Self-realisation and enjoys the eternal bliss of Brahman.
Some maintain that the practice of Karma Yoga alone is the only means
for salvation. Some others hold that devotion to the Lord is the only
way to release. Some believe that the path of wisdom is the sole way
to attain the final beatitude. There are still others who hold that
all the three paths are equally efficacious to bring about perfection
and freedom.
Man is a strange, complex mixture of will, feeling and thought. He
wills to possess the objects of his desires. He has emotion and so he
feels. He has reason and so he thinks and ratiocinates. In some, the
emotional element may preponderate, while in some others, the rational
element may dominate. Just as will, feeling and thought are not distinct
and separate, so also work, devotion and knowledge are not exclusive
of one another.
The Yoga of Synthesis is the most suitable and potent form of Sadhana.
In the mind there are three defects, viz., Mala or impurity,
Vikshepa or tossing and Avarana or veil. The impurity
should be removed by the practice of Karma Yoga. The tossing should
be removed by worship or Upasana. The veil should be torn down
by the practice of Jnana Yoga. Then only is Self-realisation possible.
If you want to see your face clearly in a mirror, you must remove the
dirt in the mirror, keep it steady and remove the covering also. You
can see your face clearly in the bottom of the lake only if the turbidity
is removed, if the water that is agitated by the wind is rendered still,
and if the moss that is lying on the surface is removed. So too is the
case with Self-realisation.
The Yoga of Synthesis alone will bring about integral development.
The Yoga of Synthesis alone will develop the head, heart and hand and
lead one to perfection. To become harmoniously balanced in all directions
is the ideal of religion. This can be achieved by the practice of the
Yoga of Synthesis.
To behold the one Universal Self in all beings is Jnana, wisdom; to
love this Self is Bhakti, devotion; and to serve this Self is Karma,
action. When the Jnana-Yogin attains wisdom, he is endowed with devotion
and selfless activity. Karma Yoga is for him a spontaneous expression
of his spiritual nature, as he sees the one Self in all. When the devotee
attains perfection in devotion, he is possessed of wisdom and activity.
For him also, Karma Yoga is a spontaneous expression of his divine nature,
as he beholds the one Lord everywhere. The Karma-Yogin attains wisdom
and devotion when his actions are wholly selfless. The three paths are
in fact one in which the three different temperaments emphasise one
or the other of its inseparable constituents. Yoga supplies the method
by which the Self can be seen, loved and served.
CHAPTER 9
Hinduism—A Fellowship Of Faiths And A Federation
Of Philosophies
Hindu theology is mainly the study and doctrine of the worship and
adoration of six forms of the Godhead as Ganesa, Devi (Durga, Lakshmi,
Sarasvati), Siva, Vishnu, Surya and Skanda. These aspects of divine
worship are known as Shanmatas, or the sixfold religious practice
of the Hindus.
Hinduism is extremely catholic, liberal, tolerant and elastic. This
is the wonderful feature of Hinduism. A foreigner is struck with astonishment
when he hears about the diverse sects and creeds of Hinduism. But these
varieties are really an ornament to Hinduism. They are not certainly
its defects. There are various types of minds and temperaments. So there
should be various faiths also. This is but natural. This is the cardinal
tenet of Hinduism. There is room in Hinduism for all types of souls—from
the highest to the lowest—for their growth and evolution.
The term Hinduism is most elastic. It includes a number of sects
and cults, allied, but different in many important points. Hinduism
has, within its fold, various schools of Vedanta; Vaishnavism, Saivism,
Saktism, etc. It has various cults and creeds. It is more a League of
Religions than a single religion with a definite creed. It accommodates
all types of men. It prescribes spiritual food for everybody, according
to his qualification and growth. This is the beauty of this magnanimous
religion. This is the glory of Hinduism. Hence there is no conflict
among the various cults and creeds. The Rig-Veda declares: “Truth
is one; sages call it by various names—Ekam Sat Viprah Bahudha
Vadanti.” The Upanishads declare that all the paths lead to
the same goal, just as cows of variegated colours yield the same white
milk. The Lord Krishna says in the Gita: “Howsoever men approach
Me, even so do I welcome them, for the path men take from every side
is Mine.” All diversities are organised and united in the body
of Hinduism.
It is rather difficult to answer the question: “What is Hinduism?”
It is a fellowship of faiths. It is also a federation of philosophies.
It provides food for reflection for the different types of thinkers
and philosophers all over the world. All sorts of philosophy are necessary.
What appeals to one may not appeal to another, and what is easy for
one may be difficult for another. Hence the need for different standpoints.
All philosophies of Hinduism are points of view. They are true in their
own way. They take the aspirant step by step, stage by stage, till he
reaches the acme or the pinnacle of spiritual glory.
Sanatana-Dharmists, Arya-Samajists, Deva-Samajists, Jainas, Bauddhas,
Sikhs and Brahma-Samajists are all Hindus only, for they rose from Hinduism,
and emphasised one or more of its aspects.
The Hindus are divided into three great classes, viz., Vaishnavas who
worship the Lord as Vishnu; Saivas who worship the Lord as Siva; and
Saktas who adore Devi or the Mother aspect of the Lord. In addition,
there are the Sauras, who worship the Sun-God; Ganapatyas who worship
Ganesa as supreme; and Kaumaras who worship Skanda as the Godhead.
Sri Sampradayins
The Vaishnavas are usually distinguished into four principal Sampradayas
or sects. Of these, the most ancient is the Sri Sampradaya founded by
Ramanuja Acharya. The followers of Ramanuja adore Vishnu and Lakshmi,
and their incarnations. They are called Ramanujas or Sri Sampradayins
or Sri Vaishnavas. They all repeat the Ashtakshara Mantra: ‘Om
Namo Narayanaya.’ They put on two white vertical lines and
a central red line on the forehead.
Vedanta Desika, a follower of Ramanuja, introduced some reform in the
Vaishnava faith. This gave rise to the formation of two parties of Ramanujas,
one called the Northern School (Vadagalai) and the other the Southern
School (Tengalai). The Tengalais regard Prapatti or self-surrender as
the only way to salvation. The Vadagalais think that it is only one
of the ways. According to them, the Bhakta or devotee is like the young
one of a monkey which has to exert itself and cling to its mother (Markata-Nyaya
or Monkey Theory); whereas, according to the Southern School, the Bhakta
or devotee is like the kitten which is carried about by the cat without
any effort on its own part (Marjala-Nyaya or Cat-hold Theory). The Northern
School accept the Sanskrit texts, the Vedas. The Southerners have compiled
a Veda of their own called ‘Nalayira Prabandha’ or
‘Four Thousand Sacred Verses’, in Tamil, and hold it to be
older than the Sanskrit Vedas. Really, their four thousand verses are
based on the Upanishad portion of the Vedas. In all their worship, they
repeat sections from their Tamil verses.
The Vadagalais regard Lakshmi as the consort of Vishnu. Herself infinite,
uncreated and equally to be adored as a means (Upaya) for release. The
Tengalais regard Lakshmi as a created female being, though divine. According
to them, she acts as a mediator or minister (Purushakara), and not as
an equal channel of release.
The two sects have different frontal marks. The Vadagalais make a simple
white line curved like the letter U to represent the sole of the right
foot of Lord Vishnu, the source of the Ganga. They add a central red
mark as a symbol of Lakshmi. The Tengalais make a white mark like the
letter Y which represents both the feet of Lord Vishnu. They draw a
white line half down the nose.
Both the sects brand the emblems of Vishnu—the discus and the
conch—on their breasts, shoulders and arms.
The Tengalais prohibit their widows from shaving the head.
The usual surnames of the Ramanuja Brahmins are Aiyangar, Acharya,
Charlu and Acharlu.
Ramanandis
The followers of Ramananda are the Ramanandis. They are well-known
in upper Hindusthan. They are a branch of the Ramanuja sect. They offer
their worship to Lord Rama, Sita, Lakshmana and Hanuman. Ramananda was
a disciple of Ramanuja. He flourished at Varanasi about the beginning
of the fourteenth century. His followers are numerous in the Ganga valley
of India. Their favourite work is the ‘Bhakti-Mala’.
Their sectarian marks are like those of the Ramanujas. The Vairagis
are the ascetics among the Ramanandis.
Vallabhacharins Or Krishna Sampradayins
The Vallabhacharins form a very important sect in Bombay, Gujarat and
the Central India. Their founder was born in the forest Champaranya
in 1479. He is regarded as an incarnation of Krishna. The Vallabhacharins
worship Krishna, as Bala-Gopala. Their idol is one representing Krishna
in his childhood till his twelfth year. The Gosains or teachers are
family men. The eight daily ceremonials for God in the temples are Mangala,
Sringara, Gvala, Raja Bhoga, Utthapana, Bhoga, Sandhya and Sayana. All
these represent various forms of adoration of God.
The mark on the forehead consists of two red perpendicular lines meeting
in a semicircle at the root of the nose and having a round spot of red
between them. The necklace and rosary are made of the stalk of the Tulasi
(holy Basil).
The great authority of the sect is the Srimad-Bhagavata as explained
in the Subodhini, the commentary thereon of Vallabhacharya. The members
of the sect should visit Sri Nathdvara, a holy shrine, at least once
in their lives.
The Chaitanyas
This sect is prominent in Bengal and Orissa. The founder, Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu or Lord Gouranga, was born in 1485. He was regarded as an
incarnation of Lord Krishna. He took Sannyasa at the age of twenty-four.
He went to Jagannath where he taught Vaishnava doctrines.
The Chaitanyas worship Lord Krishna as the Supreme Being. All castes
are admissible into the sect. The devotees constantly repeat the Name
of Lord Krishna.
Chaitanya’s Charitamirita by Krishna Das is a voluminous work.
It contains anecdotes of Chaitanya and his principal disciples and the
expositions of the doctrines of this sect. It is written in Bengali.
The Vaishnavas of this sect wear two white perpendicular streaks of
sandal or Gopichandana (a kind of sacred earth) down the forehead uniting
at the root of the nose and continuing to near the tip. They wear a
close necklace of small Tulasi beads of three strings.
The Nimbarkas
The founder of this sect is Nimbarka or Nimbaditya. He was originally
named Bhaskara Acharya. He is regarded as an incarnation of the Sun-God
(Surya). The followers worship Krishna and Radha conjointly. Their chief
scripture is the Srimad-Bhagavata Purana.
The followers have two perpendicular yellowish lines made by Gopichandana
earth drawn from the root of the hair to the commencement of each eyebrow
and there meeting in a curve. This represents the footprint of the Lord
Vishnu.
The Nimbarkas or Nimavats are scattered throughout the whole of upper
India. They are very numerous around Mathura. They are also the most
numerous of the Vaishnava sects in Bengal.
The Madhvas
The Madhvas are Vaishnavas. They are known as Brahma Sampradayins.
The founder of the sect is Madhvacharya, otherwise called Ananda Tirtha
and Purna-Prajna. He was born in 1200. He was a great opponent of Sankaracharya’s
Advaita system of philosophy. He is regarded as an incarnation of Vayu
or the Wind-God. He erected and consecrated at Udipi the image of the
Lord Krishna.
The Gurus of the Madhva sect are Brahmins and Sannyasins. The followers
bear the impress of the symbols of Vishnu upon their breasts and shoulders.
They are stamped with a hot iron. Their frontal mark consists of two
perpendicular lines made with Gopichandana and joined at the root of
the nose. They make straight black line, with a charcoal from incense
offered to Krishna, which terminates in a round mark made with turmeric.
The Madhvas are divided into two classes called the Vyasakutas and
the Dasakutas. They are found in Karnataka.
Truthfulness, study of scriptures, generosity, kindness, faith and
freedom from envy form the moral code of Madhvas. They give the Lord’s
Names to their children (Namakarana), and mark the body with His symbols
(Ankana). They practise virtue in thought, word and deed (Bhajana).
Radha Vallabhis
Radha Vallabhis worship Krishna as Radha-Vallabha, the Lord or Lover
of Radha. Harivans was the founder of this sect. Seva Sakhi Vani gives
a detailed description of the notion of this sect and more of their
traditions and observances.
Charana Dasis, Dadu Panthis, Hari Chandis, Kabir Panthis, Khakis, Maluk
Dasis, Mira Bais, Madhavis, Rayi Dasis, Senais, Sakhi Bhavas, Sadma
Panthis, are all Vaishnava sects.
Smarta Brahmins Of The South
The Saiva Brahmins of the Tamil Nadu have their title Aiyer.
They are called Smartas. They all wear three horizontal lines of Bhasma
or Vibhuti (holy ash) on their forehead. They all worship Lord Siva.
The different sects are:
1. Vadamas: Vada Desa Vadamas, Chola Desa Vadamas and Inji Vadamas;
2. Brihatcharanam: Mazhainattu Brihatcharanam, Pazhamaneri Brihatcharanam,
Milaghu Brihatcharanam and Kandramanikka Brihatcharanam; 3. Vathimars;
4. Ashtasahasram; 5. Choliyas: Otherwise called Pandimars
and inhabitants of Tiruchendur; and 6. Gurukkal: A sub-sect of
Vadamas not recognised as one amongst them and whose duties are to worship
at temples. They are also known by the name of Pattar in southern districts
of Madras. These are different from Archaks. Archaks belong to any of
the above sub-sects and intermarry with persons of other professions,
but not Gurukkal or Pattar. While Gurukkal is used only for Saivites,
Pattar and Archak are used for Vaishnavites also.
Saiva Brahmins Of Malabar
1. Nambudiri, 2. Muse and 3. Embrantiri.
Saiva Brahmins Of Bengal
l. Chakravarti, 2. Chunder, 3. Roy, 4. Ganguli, 5. Choudhury, 6. Bisvas,
7. Bagchi, 8. Majumdar and 9. Bhattacharji.
Saiva Brahmins Of Karnataka
1. Smarta, 2. Haviga, 3. Kota, 4. Shivalli, 5. Tantri, 6. Kardi and
7. Padya.
Telugu Smartas
1. Murukinadu, 2. Velanadu, 3. Karanakammalu, 4. Puduru Dravidis, 5.
Telahanyam, 6. Konasimadravidi and 7. Aruvela Niyogis.
Lingayats
They are called Vira Saivas. They are found in Mysore and Karnataka.
They wear on their neck a Linga of the Lord Siva put in a small silver
box.
Other Saiva Sects
Akas Mukhis, Gudaras, Jangamas, Karalingis, Nakhis, Rukharas, Sukharas,
Urdhabahus, Ukkaras are all Saiva sects.
The Saktas are worshippers of Devi, the Universal Mother. Dakshinis,
Vamis, Kancheliyas, Kararis are all Sakta sects.
The Sauras adore the Sun, the Ganapatyas adore Ganesa, and the Kaumaras
adore Skanda.
The non-Brahmins of South India are Naidu, Kamma Naidu, Cherty, Mudaliar,
Gounder, Pillai, Nair, Nayanar and Reddy.
Nanak Shahis of seven classes (viz., Udasis, Ganjbakshis, Ramrayis,
Sutra Shahis, Govinda Sinhis, Nirmalas, Nagas), Baba Lalis, Prana Nathis,
Sadhus, Satnamis, Siva Narayanis are other miscellaneous sects.
The founder of the Arya Samaj was Swami Dayananda Sarasvati, who was
born in Kathiawar in 1824. This Samaj is more of a social institution,
with a religious background. It has Gurukulas, schools and Pathasalas.
The Suddhi Sabha is a proselytising branch of the Arya Samaj.
The Brahma Samaj was founded originally by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, early
in the nineteenth century. The Brahma Samajists do not perform idol-worship.
Keshab Chandra Sen introduced some changes in the year 1860. There are
now two branches within the Samaj, viz., Adi Brahma Samaj which holds
to the tenets laid down by Raja Ram Mohan Roy and the Sadharana Brahma
Samaj which is a little modern and which follows Keshab Chandra Sen
more closely. The Samaj has followers in Bengal.
Salutations unto the ancient Rishis, seers, saints, Paramahamsa Sannyasins
and Sadhus, who are the repositories of divine knowledge and wisdom
and who guide the destiny of the world in the past, present and future.
Every religion has a band of anchorites who lead the life of seclusion
and meditation. There are Bhikkus in Buddhism, Fakirs in Mohammendanism,
Sufistic Fakirs in Sufism, and Fathers and Reverends in Christianity.
The glory of a religion will be lost absolutely if you remove these
hermits or Sannyasins or those who lead a life of renunciation and divine
contemplation. It is these people who maintain or preserve the religions
of the world. It is these people who give solace to the householders
when they are in trouble and distress. They are the messengers of the
Atman-knowledge and heavenly peace. They are the harbingers of divine
wisdom and peace. They are the disseminators of Adhyatmic science and
Upanishadic revelations. They heal the sick, comfort the forlorn and
nurse the bedridden. They bring hope to the hopeless, joy to the depressed,
strength to the weak and courage to the timid, by imparting the knowledge
of the Vedanta and the significance of the ‘Tat Tvam Asi’
Mahavakya.
Dasanama Sannyasins
Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanat-Kumara and Sanat-Sujata were the four mind-born
sons of Lord Brahma. They refused to enter the Pravritti Marga or worldly
life and entered the Nivritti Marga or the path of renunciation. The
four Kumaras were the pioneers in the path of Sannyasa. Sri Dattatreya
also is among the original Sannyasins. The Sannyasins of the present
day all descendants of the four Kumaras, Dattatreya and Sankaracharya.
Sri Sankaracharya, regarded as an Avatara of Lord Siva and the eminent
exponent of Kevala Advaita philosophy, established four Mutts—one
at Sringeri, another at Dvaraka, a third at Puri and a fourth at Joshi-Mutt
in the Himalayas, on the way to the Badarinarayana shrine.
Sri Sankara had four Sannyasin disciples, viz., Suresvara, Padmapada,
Hastamalaka and Totaka. Suresvara was in charge of Sringeri Mutt, Padmapada
was in charge of Puri Mutt, Hastamalaka was in charge of Dvaraka Mutt
and Totaka was in charge of Joshi-Mutt.
The Sannyasins of Sringeri Mutt, the spiritual descendants of Sri Sankara
and Suresvaracharya, have three names, viz., Sarasvati, Puri and Bharati.
The Sannyasins of the Dvaraka Mutt have two names, viz., Tirtha and
Asrama. The Sannyasins of the Puri Mutt have two names, viz., Vana and
Aranya. The Sannyasins of the Joshi-Mutt have three names, viz., Giri,
Parvata and Sagara.
The Dasanamis worship Lord Siva or Lord Vishnu, and meditate on Nirguna
Brahman. The Dandi Sannyasins, who hold staff in their hands, belong
to the order of Sri Sankara. Paramahamsa Sannyasins do not hold staff.
They freely move about as itinerant monks. Avadhutas are naked Sannyasins.
They do not keep any property with them.
The Sannyasins of the Ramakrishna Mission belong to the order of Sri
Sankara. They have the name Puri.
Then, there are Akhada Sannyasins, viz., Niranjani Akhada and Jhuna
Akhada. They belong to the order of Sri Sankara. They are Dasanamis.
They are found in the Uttaranchal State only.
Rishikesh and Haridwar are colonies for Sannyasins. Varanasi also is
among the chief abodes of Sannyasins.
Saivas
In South India, there are Tamil Sannyasins who belong to the Kovilur
Mutt, Thiruvavaduthurai and Dharmapuram Adhinams. They do not belong
to the Sri Sankara order. They are Saivas.
Nagas
Nagas are Saiva Sannyasins. They are in a naked state. They smear their
bodies with ashes. They have beard and matted locks.
Udasis
Guru Nanak’s order of ascetics are called Udasis. They correspond
to Sannyasins and Vairagis. They are indifferent to the sensual pleasures
of this world (Udasina). Hence they are called Udasis.
Vairagis
A Vairagi is one who is devoid of passion. Vairagis are Vaishnavas.
They worship Lord Rama, Sita and Hanuman. They read the Ramayana of
Tulasidas. The mendicant Vaishnavas of the Ramanandi class are the Vairagis.
This ascetic order was instituted by Sri Ananda, the twelfth disciple
of Ramananda.
Rama Sanehis
The founder of this order was Ramcharan who was born in the year 1718
in a village near Jaipur in Rajasthan. The Rama Sanehi mendicants are
of two classes, viz., the Videhis who are naked and the Mohinis who
wear two pieces of cotton cloth dyed red in ochre. Their monastery is
in Shahapur in Rajasthan. The Rama Sanehi sect has the largest following
in Mewar and Alwar. They are found also in Bombay, Gujarat, Surat, Poona,
Ahmedabad, Hyderabad and Varanasi.
Kabir Panthis
Kabir Panthis are the followers of saint Kabir. They are numerous in
all the provinces of Upper and Central India. There are twelve branches.
Kabir Chaura is at Varanasi. It is a big monastery of Kabir Panthis.
Dharamdas was the chief disciple of Kabir. The followers are expected
to have implicit devotion to the Gurus, in thought, word and deed. They
should practise truthfulness, mercy, non-injury and seclusion. The followers
of Kamal, son of Kabir, practise Yoga.
Dadu Panthis
The Dadu Panthis form one of the Vaishnava cults. Dadu, the founder
of this sect, was a disciple of one of the Kabir Panthi teachers. The
followers worship the Lord Rama.
Dadu was a cotton cleaner. He was born at Ahmedabad. He flourished
about the year 1600. The Dadu Panthis are of three classes, viz., the
Viraktas who are bareheaded and have one cloth and one water-pot, the
Nagas who carry arms and who are regarded as soldiers and the Vistar
Dharis who do the avocations of ordinary life.
The Dadu Panthis are numerous in Marwar and Ajmer. Their chief place
of worship is at Naraina, which is near Sambhur and Jaipur. Passages
from the Kabir writings are inserted in their religious scriptures.
Gorakhnath Panthis
Gorakhnath was a contemporary of Kabir. He is regarded as the incarnation
of Lord Siva. He calls himself as the son of Matsyendranath and grandson
of Adinath. There is a temple of Gorakhnath at Gorakhpur in Uttaranchal.
Bhartrihari was a disciple of Gorakhnath.
Goraksha-Sataka, Goraksha-Kalpa and Goraksha-Nama were written by Gorakhnath.
They are in Sanskrit.
The followers of Gorakhnath are usually called Kanphatas, because their
ears are bored and rings are inserted in them, at the time of their
initiation. They worship the Lord Siva.
Nimbarka Sampradayis And Ramanuja Sampradayis
There are Sadhus of the Nimbarka Sampradaya. There are Vaishnavas.
The Sannyasins of the Ramanuja Sampradaya wear orange-coloured cloth,
a holy thread and tuff and Tri-danda or three-staff. At present, they
are very few in number.
Parinami Sect
Sri Pirannath is the founder of this sect. He was born in 1675 at Jamnagar,
district Rajkot, in Kathiawar. He was the Divan of Raja Jam Jasa. The
followers are to practise Ahimsa, Satya and Daya—non-violence,
truthfulness and compassion. They study the sacred book, Kul Jam Svarup,
or Atma-Bodha, in Hindi, which contains the teachings of Sri Pirannath.
It contains 18,000 Chaupais. They worship Bala-Krishna, i.e., Krishna
as a small lad.
The followers are found mostly in the Punjab, Gujarat, Assam, Nepal
and Bombay. There are two Mutts or monasteries—one at Jamnagar
and the other at Pamna.
CHAPTER 10
Mythology is a part of every religion. Mythology is concretised philosophy.
Mythology is the science which investigates myths or fables or legends
founded on remote events, especially those made in the early period
of a people’s existence. Mythology inspires the readers through
precepts and laudable examples and goads them to attain perfection or
the highest ideal. The abstract teachings and high subtle ideas are
made highly interesting and impressive to the masses through the garb
of stories, parables, legends, allegories and narratives. The sublime
and abstract philosophical ideas and ideals of Hinduism are taken straight
to the heart of the masses through impressive stories.
Mythology And History
All religions have their own mythology. Mythology is slightly mixed
up with a little history. It is difficult to make a fine distinction
between history and mythology. If a Christian stands up and says: “My
prophet did such and such a marvellous thing,” others will say:
“This is only a myth. Our prophets did still more marvellous things
which are really historical.” It is not easy to differentiate the
two into watertight compartments.
The doctrine of Avatara of the Hindus is a myth for the people of other
religions. To worship a cow is superstition for the followers of other
religions. The beautiful image or idol of Lord Krishna, which captivates
the hearts of the sincere devotees and inspires them to enter into Bhava
Samadhi, is horrible to look at for some other religionists. A Christian,
a Jew and all others have their own various superstitions and myths.
But these myths are really historical for each of them, severally. Mythology
has no reference to anything ‘unreal’, but presents truths
as clothed in conceptual categories.
Philosophy, Mythology And Ritual
In every religion there are three parts, viz., philosophy, mythology
and ritual. Philosophy is the essence of religion. It sets forth its
basic principles or fundamental doctrines or tenets, the goal and the
means of attaining it. Mythology explains and illustrates philosophy
by means of legendary lives of great men or of supernatural beings.
Ritual gives a still more concrete form to philosophy so that everyone
may understand it. Ritual consists of forms, ceremonies, etc.
Puranas contain various myths. The cosmogonic myths of the Puranas
are very interesting. A certain portion of Hindu mythology is even now
presented to the public in the form of dramas during days of Hindu festivals.
Thus the minds of the people are saturated with sublime ideas and ideals
and lifted to great spiritual heights.
Study Of Mythology And Its Advantages
There are great truths behind the ancient mythology of Hinduism. You
cannot ignore a thing simply because it has a garb of mythology. Do
not argue. Shut up your mouth. Keep your intellect at a respectable
distance when you study mythology. Intellect is a hindrance. It will
delude you. Give up arrogance and vanity. Cultivate love for imagery.
Sit like a child and open your heart freely. You will comprehend the
great truths revealed by mythology. You will penetrate into the hearts
of the Rishis and sages who wrote the mythology. You will really enjoy
mythology now.
You study geography through maps. There is no real country or town
in a map, but it helps you to know a great deal about the different
countries. Similar is the case with myths. You can grasp the subtle
philosophical truths through myths.
By studying mythology, you will get several object lessons for moulding
your character and leading an ideal divine life. The lives of Sri Rama,
Sri Krishna, Bhishma, Nala, Harischandra, Lakshmana, Bharata, Hanuman,
Yudhishthira, Arjuna, Sita, Savitri, Damayanti, Radha, etc., are sources
of great spiritual inspiration for moulding your life, conduct and character.
When you are in a dilemma as to what to do in puzzling situations and
when there is conflict of duties, you will get the exact solutions through
study of mythology.
Thus, mythology has its own benefits and advantages. It stamps on the
minds the subtle and abstract teachings of the Vedas through instructive
stories and illuminating discourses and paves the way for men to lead
a divine life and attain perfection, freedom and immortality.
Outward symbols are necessary and beneficial. When viewed from the
right angle of vision, you will find that they play a very important
part in your material as well as spiritual life. Though they may look
very simple and unimportant, they are very scientific and effective.
Tilaka—A Mark Of Auspiciousness
Tilaka is a mark of auspiciousness. It is put on the forehead with
sandal paste, sacred ashes or Kumkuma. The devotees of Siva apply sacred
ashes (Bhasma) on the forehead, the devotees of Vishnu apply sandal
paste (Chandana), and the worshippers of Devi or Sakti apply Kumkuma,
a red turmeric powder. The scriptures say: “A forehead without
a Tilaka, a woman without a husband, a Mantra the meaning of which is
not known while doing Japa, the head that does not bend before holy
personages, a heart without mercy, a house without a well, a village
without a temple, a country without a river, a society without a leader,
wealth that is not given away in charity, a preceptor without a disciple,
a country without justice, a king without an able minister, a woman
not obedient to her husband, a well without water, a flower without
smell, a soul devoid of holiness, a field without rains, an intellect
without clearness, a disciple who does not consider his preceptor as
a form of God, a body devoid of health, a custom (Achara) without purity,
austerity devoid of fellow-feeling, speech in which truth is not the
basis, a country without good people, work without wages, Sannyasa without
renunciation, legs which have not performed pilgrimages, a determination
unaided by Viveka or discrimination, a knife which is blunt, a cow which
does not give milk, a spear without a point—all these are worthy
of condemnation. They exist for name’s sake only.” From this
you can imagine the importance of Tilaka or the sacred mark.
Tilaka is applied at the Ajna Chakra, the space between the two eyebrows.
It has a very cooling effect. Application of sandal paste has great
medicinal value, apart from the spiritual influence. Application of
sandal paste will nullify the heating effect when you concentrate and
meditate at the Bhrumadhya. Tilaka indicates the point at which the
spiritual eye opens. Lord Siva has a third eye at the Bhrumadhya. When
He opens the third eye, the three worlds are destroyed. So also, when
the third eve of the Jiva is opened, the three kinds of afflictions—Adhyatmika,
Adhidaivika and Adhibhautika—are burnt to ashes. The three Karmas—Sanchita,
Prarabdha and Agami—and also all the sins committed in the countless
previous births, are burnt. When you apply the Tilaka, you mentally
imagine: “I am the one non-dual Brahman free from all duality.
May my eye of intuition open soon.” You should remember this every
time you apply a Tilaka.
There are various methods of applying Tilaka. Saivas apply three horizontal
lines with the sacred ashes. The Vaishnavas apply three vertical lines
(Tripundra) on the forehead. When they apply Tilaka, they say: “O
Lord, protect me from the evil effects of the Trigunatmika Maya which
has Sattva, Rajas and Tamas as its binding cords.” Some Vaishnavas
apply only one vertical line. Only the method of application differs,
but the significance is the same in both the Vaishnavas and the Saivas.
The Tuft—Its Utility And Significance
Brahmins (Brahmanas) as well as the other castes grow Choti or Sikha,
a tuft of hair. This tuff of hair was not so small in olden days, as
seen in the present day. It covered the whole brain. They allowed the
hair to grow. They never cut the tuft. It protects the brain from any
sudden stroke and keeps it cool. The heat of the sun does not affect
the head directly. Lack of this tuff has necessitated the use of umbrellas,
etc.
The tuft is most scientific as well as religious. Any religious act
should be performed after tying the tuft. Only the funeral and death
anniversaries are performed with tuft untied or with dishevelled hair.
It is very inauspicious to remain with dishevelled hair. It is done
only in times of great sorrow or calamity. Draupadi took an oath in
the assembly of the Kurus when she was molested by Dussasana that she
would remain with dishevelled hair until the enemies were properly revenged.
Kaikeyi remained with dishevelled hair in her apartment with the object
of getting two boons from Dasaratha which were detrimental to the interests
of Rama, the favourite of Dasaratha. Auspicious acts are never undertaken
with tuft untied. Nowadays, very few people wear tuft, and even women
are neglecting this vital point in their feverish anxiety to copy the
West. The tuft of hair has a salutary effect on the essential parts
of the brain and the central nervous system.
Significance Of The Sacred Thread
Yajnopavita or the sacred thread is worn by the Brahmins, Kshatriyas
and the Vaisyas. Wearing the sacred thread is a very holy and sacred
ceremony amongst the Hindus. Brahmin boys between the ages of five and
eight are invested with the sacred thread on a very auspicious day.
By this ceremony, they become fit for the repetition of Gayatri. A Brahmin
becomes a true Brahmin only after this ceremony. It is said: “Janmana
Jayate Sudrah Karmana Jayate Dvijah—By birth one is a Sudra;
by Karma (i.e., the investiture with the sacred thread) he becomes a
Dvija or Brahmin.” Upanayana or thread ceremony is the second birth;
hence, the Brahmins are called Dvijas (Dvija means ‘born twice’).
The sacred thread or Yajnopavita consists of three threads. It denotes
that one should be a Brahmachari in thought, word and deed. Each thread
represents a Veda, viz., the Rik, Yajus and Sama. It represents also
Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. The knot in the middle represents the formless
Brahman, the Supreme Principle. The three threads represent also Sattva,
Rajas and Tamas of the Trigunatmika Maya, and the knot represents the
Isvara who controls Maya. Those who worship God at the three Sandhyas
and repeat the Gayatri holding the Brahma knot of the sacred thread,
derive immense strength and power. In days of yore, a Brahmana meditating
upon the Gayatri holding the Brahma knot, had the power to bless and
curse others. The educated intelligentsia of the present day are quite
ignorant of the power of the sacred thread and the performance of Sandhya.
That is the reason why they have ignored it. The sacred thread is a
great power for the Brahmin who leads a regulated life devoted to the
worship of God. Kshatriyas and Vaisyas, too, acquire power, fame and
wealth by the power of the sacred thread.
A householder wears, at the time of marriage, an additional sacred
thread. A Brahmachari has only one. The additional thread at the time
of marriage is intended for the well-being of the partner. The sacred
thread should be on the body always. The custom of washing it after
removing it from the body or sending it to the washerman, is a wrong
procedure. Some people are ashamed to wear the thread when they go to
the office and they leave it at home. How ignorant they are!
Yajnopavita, the Choti, caste-mark, etc., are the external symbols
to show that one is a Hindu. Purity, self-restraint, non-violence, patience,
love for one’s fellow-beings—these are the internal marks
of a Hindu.
Achamana And Prokshana
Achamana is sipping water three times, repeating the Names of the Lord.
Prokshana is sprinkling water over one’s body for the sake of purity,
when a bath is not possible. This is for internal as well as external
purity. While sipping water, the following Mantras are repeated: “Achyutaya
Namah—prostrations to the immutable Lord; Anantaya Namah—prostrations
to the unlimited Lord; Govindaya Namah—prostrations to the
Lord who is known by the Name of Govinda.” Then the various Names
of the Lord—Kesava, Narayana, Madhava, Govinda, Vishnu, Madhusudana,
Trivikrama, Vamana, Sridhara, Hrishikesa, Padmanabha and Damodara—are
repeated, touching the various parts Of the body, viz., the eyes, the
ears, the face, the navel, the head, etc. One becomes pure by doing
Achamana after he answers calls of nature, after walking in the streets,
just before taking food and after food, and after a bath. This reminds
you of the Lord now and then. Every act, every ritual, every symbol
has a deep philosophical importance. They help you in changing the mental
substance from Rajas and Tamas to Sattva. They give you an opportunity
to think of God frequently.
Offering Food To God, Guests And The Pancha-Pranas
Before sitting for food, the place is purified, a seat is put and in
a leaf the articles of food are served. Before taking the food, a little
water is sprinkled making a line all round the leaf repeating some Vedic
Mantras. This repetition purifies the food. Then a little water is sipped.
According to science as well as medicine, a little water, if drunk before
the food is taken, is highly beneficial. Then the food is offered to
the five Pranas and Brahman seated in the heart, by repeating Om
Pranaya Svaha, Apanaya Svaha, Vyanaya Svaha, Udanaya Svaha, Samanaya
Svaha, and lastly, Brahmane Svaha. Just mark the importance
of this offering. The person who takes the food offers it to the deities
who dwell in the body in the form of Prana, Apana, etc. He does not
eat for himself. The physical body is not the eater. It is the Pancha
Prana that takes the food. Thus, taking food also can be converted into
an act of Yoga or sacrifice.
One should daily offer to the Lord the food that he has prepared, before
he partakes of it. He should say: “Tvadiyam Vastu Govinda Tubhyameva
Samarpaye—I offer to Thee, O Govinda, this (food) which belongs
to Thee only.” The custom of the Hindus is that they should feed
the guest who comes to their house before they take food. The guest
is a representative of the Lord. The Srutis say: “Athhi Devo
Bhava.”
Bells, Lights, Dhupa, Camphor And Sandal Paste
Bells are rung in temples while doing Puja, to shut out the external
sounds and to make the mind inward and concentrated.
Lights are waved before the Deity. This denotes that the Lord is Jyotis-Svarupa.
He is all-light. The devotee says: “O Lord! Thou art the self-effulgent
Light of the universe. Thou art the light in the sun, moon and fire.
Remove the darkness in me by bestowing your divine light. May my intellect
be illumined.” This is the significance of waving lights.
Dhupa or scented sticks are burnt before the Deity. The smoke spreads
the whole room. It acts as a disinfectant. Burning of Dhupa denotes
that the Lord is all-pervading and that He fills the whole universe
by His living presence. It is to remind this fact that Dhupa is burnt.
The devotee prays: “O Lord! Let the Vasanas and Samskaras dormant
in me vanish like the smoke of this Dhupa and become ashes. Let me become
stainless.”
Burning of camphor denotes that the individual ego melts like the camphor
and the Jivatman becomes one with the supreme Light of lights.
The sandal paste reminds the devotee that he should, in his difficulties,
be as patient as the sandal. Sandal emanates sweet odour when it is
rubbed on a hard surface and made into a paste. So also the devotee
should not murmur when difficulties arise, but on the other hand, remain
cheerful and happy and emanate sweetness and gentleness like the sandal.
He should not hate even his enemy. This is another precept we learn
from this. Though the sandalwood is crushed and made into a paste, it
silently wears out emanating only very sweet odour. One should not wish
evil even to his enemy.
Prasada—Its Sacredness And Glory
Prasada is that which gives peace. Prasada is the sacred food offering
of the Lord. During Kirtana, worship, Puja, Havan and Arati, the devotee
offers sweet rice, fruits, jaggery, milk, coconut, plantain and such
other articles to the Lord, according to his ability. After offering
them to the Lord, they are shared between the members of the house or
the Bhaktas in a temple.
Water, flowers, rice, etc., are offered to the Lord in worship. This
denotes that the Lord is pleased with even the smallest offering. What
is wanted is the heart of the devotee. The Lord says in the Gita: “Patram
Pushpam Phalam Toyam Yo Me Bhaktya Prayacchati; Tadaham Bhaktyupahritamasnami
Prayatatmanah—Whoever offers a leaf, a flower, a fruit or even
water, with devotion, that I accept, offered as it is with a loving
heart.” It is not necessary that one should offer gold, silver
and costly dress to the Lord. The devotee offers these according to
his ability and position in life, thereby denoting that the whole wealth
of the world belongs to the Lord. A rich man offers costly things to
the Lord. He feeds the poor and serves the sick, seeing the Lord in
his fellow-beings.
Puja is done with Bael leaves, flowers, Tulasi, Vibhuti and these are
given as Prasada from the Lord. Vibhuti is the Prasada of Lord Siva.
It is to be applied on the forehead. A small portion can be taken in.
Kumkuma is the Prasada of Sri Devi or Sakti. It is to be applied at
the space between the eyebrows (Ajna or Bhrumadhya). Tulasi is the Prasada
of Lord Vishnu, Rama or Krishna. It is to be taken in. They are charged
with mysterious powers by the chanting of Mantras during Puja and Havan.
The mental Bhava of the devotee offering Bhog to the Lord has a very
great effect. If an ardent devotee of the Lord offers anything to the
Lord, that Prasada, if taken, would bring very great change even in
the minds of atheists. The Grace of the Lord descends through Prasada.
Go through the life of Narada. You will realise the greatness of the
sacred leavings of the Lord as well as those of advanced Sadhakas and
saints.
Namadeva offered rice, etc., to Panduranga Vitthala and He ate the
food and shared it with Namadeva as well. If the food is offered with
an yearning heart, sometimes, the Lord takes that food assuming a physical
form. In other cases, the Lord enjoys the subtle essence of the food
offered, and the food remains as it is in the shape of Prasada. While
feeding Mahatmas and the poor people, that which is left behind is taken
as Prasada. When a sacrifice is performed, the participants share the
Prasada which bestows the blessings of the gods. When Dasaratha performed
Putrakameshti (a sacrifice performed wishing for son), he got a vessel
full of sweetened rice which he gave to his queens, by taking which
they became pregnant. Prasada is the most sacred object for a devotee.
One should consider himself lucky to take the Prasada, and there is
no restriction of any kind in taking Prasada. Time and place, and the
condition in which one is placed—all these do not affect him in
any way. Prasada is all-purifying.
The benefits of Prasada and Charanamrita are beyond description. They
have the power to change entirely the outlook of a man’s life.
Prasada and Charanamrita have the power to cure diseases and even bring
back to life dead persons. There had been ever so many instances in
the past in this holy land of ours which bear witness to the potency
and efficacy of Prasada. Prasada destroys all pains and sins. It is
an antidote for misery, pain and anxiety. Faith is the important factor
in testing the accuracy of this statement. For faithless persons, it
brings very little effect.
Those who are brought up in modern education and culture have forgotten
all about the glory of Prasada. Many English-educated persons do not
attach any importance to Prasada when they get it from Mahatmas. This
is a serious mistake. Prasada is a great purifier. As they are brought
up in the western style of living, they have imbibed the spirit of westerners
and forgotten the spirit of the true children of Indian Rishis of yore.
Live for a week in Vrindavana or Ayodhya or Varanasi or Pandharpur.
You will realise the glory and the miraculous effects of Prasada. Many
incurable diseases are cured. Many sincere devotional aspirants get
wonderful spiritual experiences from mere Prasada alone. Prasada is
a panacea. Prasada is a spiritual elixir. Prasada is the Grace of the
Lord. Prasada is a cure-all and an ideal pick-me-up. Prasada is an embodiment
of Sakti. Prasada is Divinity in manifestation. Prasada energises, vivifies,
invigorates and infuses devotion. It should be taken with great faith.
The Japa Mala
Significance of the Number of Beads
Generally, the rosary or Mala used for Japa contains 108 beads. A man
breathes 21,600 times every day. If one does 200 Malas of Japa, it becomes
21,600; thereby, he does one Japa for every breath. If he does 200 Malas
of Japa every day, that amounts to remembrance of God throughout the
day. Malas may contain beads which form divisions of 108 also, so that
the same calculation can be maintained. The Meru (the central bead in
the Mala) denotes that you have done your Japa 108 times. This also
denotes that every time you come to the Meru bead, you have gone one
step further on the spiritual path and crossed over one obstacle. A
portion of your ignorance is removed. A rosary or Mala is a whip to
goad you to do Japa. Mohammedans also have a rosary (Tasbi) in their
hands when they repeat their prayers. They roll the beads and repeat
the name of Allah. Christians have their paternoster.
The Raksha Stotra
Before sitting for Japa and meditation, the Raksha Stotra is generally
repeated. It means: “May the Lord protect me, staying in every
part of my body.” Each part is separately named and a particular
Name of the Lord is repeated for the protection of that part. Anganyasa
and Karanyasa also have the same effect. They drive away the evil effects
of evil spirits, if any. The obstacles that stand in the way of concentration
and meditation are removed. Evil thoughts will not enter the mind. This
is a prayer to remove obstacles in Japa and meditation.
The Ochre Cloth And The Shaven Head
Symbols of Renunciation
The ochre colour (Gerua) of the dress of a Sannyasin indicates that
he is as pure as fire itself. He shines like the burnt gold, free from
all impurities of desires and Vasanas. It denotes purity. It stands
for purity. For an aspirant who has taken to the path of Nivritti Marga,
it is a help. He will swerve and shrink from evil actions. This cloth
will remind him that he is not entitled to worldly enjoyments. Gradually
his nature will be moulded. This coloured cloth serves as an external
symptom to show that one is a Sannyasin.
A Sannyasin shaves his head completely. This removes from him all beauty.
He will not have to take care about dressing his hair with scented oils,
etc. This shows that he has renounced all external beauties and that
he dwells in the Self which is Beauty of beauties. This Mundana (shaving
of head) indicates that he is no more of the world. He should not desire
any sensual object. It is only an external symbol of the mental state
of complete dispassion and turning away from the pleasures of the world.
He removes his Choti also at the time of Sannyasa to indicate that he
is no more bound by the various Nitya and Naimittika Karmas and that
they have been burnt in the fire of Vairagya. Further, this shaving
of the head is suitable for a wandering life. The existence of long
hairs will prevent him from taking bath whenever he likes. Shaving will
relieve him of much worry, and the time he would have otherwise spent
in drying, combing and dressing his hair he may spend in prayers and
meditation.
The Vedas and the Upanishads state that the ultimate truth in its pure
and naked form, very unceremoniously. The Itihasas, Puranas and Agamas
give this truth a homely, personal and symbolic touch through narration
of history, legend and mythology.
Do not neglect outward symbols. Make a research study of our Vedic
customs and injunctions. You will find wonderful and precious gems in
every one of them. Their utility and efficacy will be revealed in following
them.
May you all tread the path of Dharma and attain Kaivalya Moksha in
this very birth.
CHAPTER 11
(THE SHAD-DARSANAS)
Philosophy is the rational aspect of religion. It is an integral part
of religion in India. It is a rational enquiry into the nature of Truth
or Reality. It gives clear solutions for the profound, subtle problems
of life. It shows the way to get rid of pain and death and attain immortality
and eternal bliss.
Philosophy has its root in the practical needs of man. Man wants to
know about transcendental matters when he is in a reflective state.
There is an urge within him to know about the secret of death, the secret
of immortality, the nature of the soul, the Creator and the world. Philosophy
helps him to know all these things. Philosophy is the self-expression
of the growing spirit of man. The philosophers are its voice. Great
creative thinkers and philosophers appear in all ages. They elevate
and inspire the people.
Certain philosophical questions arise in the mind of man. What is this
Samsara? Has it any purpose? Is the world real or mere appearance? Is
there any Creator or Governor of this universe? If there is a Creator,
what is His nature? What is the relation between man and the Creator?
Is there any way to escape from the round of births and deaths? Is there
any such thing as the Impersonal Absolute? If so, what is Its essential
nature? How did man come into bondage? What is his essential nature?
Is he a part of the Supreme Soul, or is he identical with
It? What is the difference between Personal God and the Impersonal Absolute?
What is the source for this world? What is matter? What is mind? What
is individual soul? What is the goal of life? The search for a solution
of these problems is philosophy. Philosophy solves beautifully all these
problems.
Death—The Starting Point Of Philosophy
The idea of death has ever been the strongest motive-power of religion
and religious life. Man is afraid of death. Man does not want to die.
He wants to live for ever. This is the starting point of philosophy.
Philosophy enquires and investigates. It boldly proclaims: “O man!
Do not be afraid of death. There is an immortal abode. That is Brahman.
That is your own Atman which dwells in the chamber of your heart. Purify
your heart and meditate on this pure, immortal, changeless Self. You
will attain immortality.” Death is the ultimate pointer to the
transiency of all things and the existence of an ultimate Reality.
Various Schools Of Philosophy
A clear understanding of man’s relation to God is a matter of
momentous importance to students of philosophy and to all aspirants.
Philosophers, prophets, saints, sages, thinkers, Acharyas and great
religious leaders of the world have tried to explain the relation of
man to God and the universe. Various schools of philosophy and different
kinds of religious beliefs have come into existence, on account of various
explanations given by different philosophers.
Philosophy And Intuition
Philosophy will take you to the gates of the realm of eternal bliss,
but it cannot allow you to enter that realm. Intuition or realisation
is necessary for entering into that holy land of everlasting joy and
ineffable glory.
Hindu philosophy is not mere speculation or guesswork. It is lofty,
sublime, unique and systematic. It is based tin mystic spiritual experience,
or Aparoksha Anubhuti. The seers, sages and Rishis who had direct, intuitive
perception of the Truth are the founders of the different philosophical
systems in India. The different schools of philosophy are all based
on the Srutis or the Vedas, directly or indirectly. Those who have studied
carefully the Upanishads will find that the revelations of the Srutis
are in harmony with the conclusions of philosophy.
The six systems of Indian philosophy or the Shad-Darsanas are the six
orthodox systems of philosophy. They are the six ways of looking at
the Truth. They are (1) The Nyaya; (2) The Vaiseshika; (3) The Sankhya;
(4) The Yoga; (5) The Purva-Mimamsa; and (6) The Uttara-Mimamsa, or
the Vedanta.
The orthodox systems of philosophy believe in the authority of the
Vedas. The heterodox systems of philosophy do not believe in the authority
of the Vedas. The six heterodox systems of philosophy are:
1. The Materialistic School of Charvaka;
2. The System of the Jainas;
3. The School of Presentationists or Vaibhashikas (Buddhistic);
4. The School of Representationists or Sautrantikas (Buddhistic);
5. The School of Idealism or Yogacharas (Buddhistic); and
6. The School of Nihilism of the Madhyamikas (Buddhistic).
The Shad-Darsanas or the six orthodox systems grew directly out of
the Vedas. Darsana means literally sight or vision.
Darsana means a system of philosophy. The Darsana literature is philosophical.
Each Darsana is a way of looking into the Truth; is a standpoint in
respect of the Truth.
Gautama Rishi systematised the principles of Nyaya or the Indian logical
system. Kanada composed the Vaiseshika Sutras. Kapila Muni founded the
Sankhya system. Patanjali Maharshi is the first systematiser of the
Yoga school. He composed his Yoga Sutras. The Yoga-Darsana of Patanjali
is a celebrated text-book on Raja Yoga. Jaimini, a disciple of Vyasa,
composed the Sutras of the Mimamsa school, which is based on the ritual-sections
of the Vedas. Badarayana composed his famous Vedanta-Sutras or Brahma-Sutras
which expound the teachings of the Upanishads. The different schools
of the Vedanta have built their philosophy on the foundation of these
Sutras.
Different Ways Of Approach To The Same Goal
The six schools of thought are like the six different roads which lead
to one city. You may go to Bombay by train or aeroplane or motor bus
or any other vehicle. Even so, you can reach the goal of life through
Yoga, or Vedanta, or any other path. The methods or ways of approach
to the Goal are different to suit people of different temperaments,
capacities and mental calibre. But they all have one aim, viz., removal
of ignorance and its effects of pain and sufferings and the attainment
of freedom, perfection, immortality and eternal bliss by union of the
individual soul (Jivatman) with the Supreme Soul (Paramatman).
No student of Hinduism ought to be satisfied without acquiring a clear
and accurate knowledge of the principal distinguishing characteristics
of the six philosophical schools. The more advanced scholar should study
the original Sutras in which the doctrines of each school are enunciated.
Study of the six schools of philosophy will sharpen the intellect and
give you vast knowledge. You will have a clear and comprehensive understanding
of the Truth. Each system is a step or rung in the spiritual ladder.
Interrelation Between The Six Systems
The six schools are divided into three groups: (i) The Nyaya and the
Vaiseshika, (ii) The Sankhya and the Yoga, and (iii) The Mimamsa and
the Vedanta. The Vaiseshika is a supplement of the Nyaya. The Yoga is
a supplement of the Sankhya. The Vedanta is an amplification and fulfilment
of the Sankhya. Study of Vyakarana (grammar), Mimamsa, Nyaya and Sankhya
is necessary to understand the Vedanta. The Nyaya sharpens the intellect
and enables the aspirants to grasp the Vedanta. The Nyaya is considered
as a prerequisite for all philosophical enquiry.
The Vaiseshika is not very much in honour now. The Nyaya is popular.
The Sankhya is not a living faith. The Yoga is practised by a few in
its practical form. The Vedanta is the most popular of all the schools
today.
The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika will give you an analysis of the world
of experience. They arrange all the things of the world into certain
kinds or categories (Padarthas). They explain how God has made all this
material world out of atoms and molecules. They show the way to attain
knowledge of God. The Sankhya will provide you with deep knowledge of
Hindu psychology. Kapila Muni was the father of psychology. The Yoga
deals with the control of Vrittis, or thought-waves, and with meditation.
The Yoga system shows the ways to discipline the mind and the senses.
The Yoga will help you to cultivate concentration and one-pointedness
of mind and enter into Nirvikalpa Samadhi or the Superconscious State.
The Purva-Mimamsa deals with the Karma-Kanda of the Vedas, and the Uttara-Mimamsa
with the Jnana-Kanda. The Uttara-Mimamsa is also known as the Vedanta-Darsana.
This is the corner-stone of Hinduism. The Vedanta philosophy explains
in detail the nature of Brahman or the Eternal Being, and shows that
the individual soul is, in essence, identical with the Supreme Self.
It gives methods to remove Avidya or the veil of ignorance and to merge
oneself in the ocean of bliss or Brahman.
The Nyaya calls ignorance Mithya Jnana, false knowledge. The Sankhya
styles it Aviveka, non-discrimination between the real and the unreal.
The Vedanta names it Avidya, nescience. Each philosophy aims at its
eradication by Knowledge or Jnana. Then one attains eternal bliss or
immortality.
By study of Nyaya and Vaiseshika, one learns to utilise his intellect
to find out fallacies and to know the material constitution of the world.
By study of Sankhya, one understands the course of evolution. By study
and practice of Yoga, one gains self-restraint and obtains mastery over
mind and senses. By practice of Vedanta, one reaches the highest rung
of the ladder of spirituality or the pinnacle of divine glory, oneness
with the Supreme Being, by the destruction of ignorance (Avidya).
Vedanta—The Most Satisfactory System Of Philosophy
Some of the doctrines of the Nyaya, the Vaiseshika, the Sankhya and
the Yoga are opposed to the teachings of the Vedas. These systems are
only superficially based on the Vedas. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika
schools rely too much on human reason, though they accept the Vedas
as the supreme authority. Human intellect is frail and finite. It has
got its limitations. It functions within time, space and causation.
Its findings cannot be infallible. It cannot solve transcendental matters.
Vedas only are infallible and authoritative. They contain the revelations
or direct intuitional experiences of seers and Rishis. These experiences
will tally with the experiences of those who have attained Knowledge
of the Self (Brahma-Jnana).
The Vedanta is the most satisfactory system of philosophy. It has been
evolved out of the Upanishads. It has superseded all other schools.
The Mimamsa school had laid great stress on rituals, or Karma-Kanda.
According to the Mimamsa school, Karma or ritual is all-in-all in the
Veda. Upasana (worship) and Jnana (knowledge) are only accessories to
Karma. This view is refuted by the Vedanta school. According to the
Vedanta, Self-realisation (Jnana) is the foremost thing, and ritual
and worship are accessories. Karma will take one to heaven which is
only an impermanent place of refined sensual enjoyment. Karma cannot
destroy the cycle of births and deaths, and cannot give eternal bliss
and immortality.
During the time of Sankaracharya, all the six schools of philosophy
flourished. Therefore, he had to refute the other systems in order to
establish his absolute monism (Kevala Advaita). But, nowadays, Sankhya,
Vaiseshika, etc., are in name only. Even now, some Hindu preachers,
Sannyasins and Mandalesvars try to establish Advaita Vedanta by refuting
these old systems. This is a mistake. They will have to refute at the
present moment materialism, agnosticism, atheism and science, and then
establish Advaita Vedanta.
Introduction
Salutations to Rishi Gautama, the founder of the Nyaya system of philosophy.
The Nyaya or Hindu logic was founded by Gautama Rishi, who is also
known by the names Akshapada and Dirghatapas. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika
are analytic types of philosophy. The word Nyaya signifies going
into a subject, i.e., investigating it analytically. In this sense
of analysis, the word Nyaya is exactly opposed to Sankhya, synthesis.
The Nyaya is sometimes called Tarka-Vidya or the Science of Debate,
Vada-Vidya or the Science of Discussion. Tarka is the special feature
of the Nyaya.
The Nyaya is not merely formal logic, but a complete epistemology.
Ordinary people think that the Nyaya is chiefly concerned with logic.
Logic is merely a part or a single topic. The purpose of the Nyaya is
a critical examination of the objects of knowledge by means of the canons
of logical proof. The Nyaya system deals critically with metaphysical
problems. It contains discussions on psychology, logic, metaphysics
and theology.
The Nyaya—A Method of Philosophical Enquiry
The Nyaya is intended to furnish a correct method of philosophical
enquiry into all the objects and subjects of human knowledge, including
the process of reasoning and laws of thought. The evidence of the senses
is submitted to a critical enquiry. The Nyaya gives a description of
the mechanism of knowledge in detail. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika explore
the significance of time, space, cause, matter, mind, soul and knowledge
for experience, and give the results in the form of a theory of the
universe. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are regarded as parts of one
whole. The Vaiseshika is a supplement to the Nyaya. They are allied
systems. They both believe in a Personal God, a plurality of souls and
an atomic universe. Further, they use many arguments in common.
The Nyaya is the basis of all Sanskrit philosophical studies. It is
an introduction to all systematic philosophy. It is the preliminary
course for a student of philosophy. You cannot understand the Brahma-Sutras
of Sri Vyasa without a knowledge of the Nyaya. A study of the Nyaya
develops the power of reasoning or arguing. It renders the intellect
sharp and subtle. You cannot make Vedantic enquiry without a sharp and
subtle intellect. The Kathopanishad says: “Drisyate Tvagryaya
Buddhya Sukshmaya Sukshma-Darsibhih—It (the Atman) is beheld
by subtle seers through their sharp and subtle intellect.”
The ‘Nyaya Sutra’ by Gautama is the first work on Nyaya philosophy.
This is the most famous book of the school. Numerous commentaries have
been written on this book by various authors, viz., Nyaya-Bhashya by
Vatsyayana, Nyayalankara by Srikantha, Nyaya-Manjari by Jayanta,
Nyaya-Bodhini by Govardhana, Nyaya-Varttika-Tatparya-Tika by Vachaspati
Misra, etc.
Knowledge
All knowledge implies four conditions: (i) the subject or the Pramata,
the cogniser, (ii) the object or the Prameya, (iii) the resulting state
of cognition or the Pramiti and (iv) the means of knowledge or the Pramana.
Prameya or the objects of which right knowledge is to be obtained,
are twelve, viz., (i) Soul (Atman), (ii) Body (Sarira), (iii) Senses
(Indriyas), (iv) Objects of senses (Artha), (v) Intellect (Buddhi),
(vi) Mind (Manas), (vii) Activity (Pravritti), (viii) Fault (Dosha),
(ix) Transmigration (Pretyabhava), (x) Fruit (Phala), (xi) Pain (Duhkha),
and (xii) Salvation (Apavarga).
Perception (Pratyaksha), inference (Anumana), comparison (Upamana),
and word, or verbal testimony (Sabda) are the Pramanas or the means
of right knowledge. Sabda, or verbal testimony, includes Vedic revelation.
Pratyaksha is perception by the senses.
God, Soul And Universe
God
The Nyaya says that the actions of man produce their fruits, called
Adrishta, under the control of God. God supervises the work of Adrishta.
The intelligent principle of Adrishta, which governs the fate of man,
acts under the direction of God. God does not alter the course of Adrishta
but renders possible its operation. God is the bestower of the fruits
of actions of human beings. God is a Special Soul endowed with omnipotence
and omniscience, by which He guides and regulates the world.
God is a Personal Being. He is free from Mithya-Jnana (false knowledge).
Adharma (demerit), and Pramada (carelessness). He has Jnana (knowledge),
Ichha (desire) and Prayatna (volitional effort). God is ONE, Creator,
who is endowed with Nitya Jnana (eternal knowledge) and Ichha-Kriya
(desire-action) as His Gunas (attributes). He is Vibhu (all-pervading).
The Soul
The soul is a real being. It is an eternal entity. Desire, aversion,
volition, pleasure, pain, intelligence and cognition are its qualities
or marks. The object of the notion of ‘I’ is the soul. No
cognition or recollection is possible without a soul. The eye cannot
see objects and the ear cannot hear sounds without a soul. There should
be an agent to use the instruments (senses). That agent is the soul.
After an object is seen, even if the eyes are both destroyed, the knowledge
that I have seen remains. This knowledge is not a quality of
either the objects or the senses. The mind is not the soul. It is only
an instrument of the soul, by means of which it thinks. The self is
the subject. The soul exists even when the body perishes, the senses
are cut off and the mind is controlled. There are infinite numbers of
souls.
The Universe
The universe is a composite of eternal, unalterable, causeless atoms,
which exists independently of our thoughts. The universe is the modification
of the atoms (Paramanus) of the physical elements: Earth (Prithvi),
Water (Apas), Fire (Tejas) and Air (Vayu). The Nyaya admits nine objects
(Dravyas), viz., Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Ether, Time, Space (Quarters),
Mind and the Self (Atman).
The Cause Of Bondage And The Means To Emancipation
Misapprehension (Mithya-Jnana), faults (Dosha), activity (Pravritti),
birth (Janma) and pain (Duhkha) constitute the world. False notion or
false knowledge is at the root of all misery and pain. From Mithya-Jnana
or false notion comes the fault of like and dislike (Raga-Dvesha); from
Raga-Dvesha proceeds Karma or action—virtuous or vicious—which
forces a man to pass through repeated births for the sake of its reward
or punishment. From these births proceed misery and pain. It is the
aim of philosophy to eradicate the false notion or Mithya-Jnana which
is at the root of all miseries and pains. On the successive annihilation
of misapprehension, faults, activity, birth and pain, there follows
release (Apavarga).
The Sixteen Categories
One can remove misapprehension or false knowledge and attain supreme
felicity by the true knowledge of the sixteen categories. The sixteen
categories are: means of right knowledge (Pramana), object of right
knowledge (Prameya), doubt (Samsaya), purpose (Prayojana), familiar
instance (Drishtanta), established tenet (Siddhanta), members (Avayava),
argumentation (Tarka), ascertainment (Nirnaya), discussion (Vada), wrangling
(Jalpa), cavil (Vitanda), fallacy (Hetvabhasa), quibble (Chala), futility
(Jati), and occasion for rebuke (Nigraha-sthana).
There is, first, the state of Samsaya or doubt about the point to be
discussed. Next comes the Prayojana or motive for discussing it. Next
follows a Drishtanta or example which leads to the Siddhanta or established
conclusion. Then comes the objector with his Avayava or argument, split
up into five members. Next follows the Tarka or refutation, and the
Nirnaya or ascertainment of the true state of the case. A further Vada
or controversy takes place, which leads to Jalpa or mere wrangling.
This is followed by Vitanda or cavilling, Hetvabhasa or fallacious reasoning,
and Nigraha-sthana, the putting an end to all discussion by a demonstration
of the objector’s incapacity for argument.
When one attains the true knowledge, his faults, viz., affection (Raga),
aversion (Dvesha) and stupidity (Moha) vanish. Aversion includes anger,
envy, malice and hatred. Attachment includes lust, greed, avidity and
covetousness. Stupidity includes suspicion, conceit, carelessness and
misapprehension. Stupidity generates dislike and attachment. You must
put an end to the chain, which begins with misapprehension or false
knowledge and ends with pain, if you wish to attain release. If false
knowledge vanishes, faults will disappear. If faults vanish, one is
freed from activity and the consequent transmigration and pains.
Transmigration, which consists in the soul’s leaving one body
and taking another, is the cause of its undergoing pleasure and pain.
A soul which is no longer subject to transmigration is freed from all
pains. The soul attains release as soon as there is an end to the body,
and consequently to pleasure and pain.
The State of Apavarga or Release
Apavarga, or release, is absolute deliverance from pain. It is freedom
from pain. It is cessation of pain. It is not the enjoyment of positive
pleasure. It is not annihilation of the self. It is destruction of bondage.
Release from the twenty-one kinds of pain or Duhkha is liberation (Moksha).
In the state of release, there is no connection of mind with the Atman.
The Atman is destitute of desire, effort, merit, demerit, hatred, mental
impressions, etc., in the state of liberation, as, then, there is no
mind. The liberation (Moksha) of the Naiyayikas is a word without meaning.
It is a state of painless, passionless existence, like that of a stone
without sensation and interest.
To Sum Up
This world has begun by a combination of atoms. It has Samyoga (conjunction)
and Viyoga (disassociation). The cause of the world is the Paramanus
(atoms) and the nine Dravyas (materials), including Isvara (God). Isvara
has Nitya-Jnana (eternal knowledge) who has also Ichha-Kriya (desire-action)
as Gunas (qualities). He is Vibhu (all-pervading). Jiva is doer and
enjoyer. He has several attributes. Jivas are endless. The cause for
bondage is ignorance (Ajnana). Twenty-one kinds of pain constitute bondage.
Moksha is destruction of all kinds of pain. Knowledge of the Atman,
as is distinct from others, is Moksha-Sadhana. Gautama advocates Arambhavada
and Anyathakhyati (theory of the production of a new effect from every
cause and of realistic epistemology).
Introduction
Silent adorations to Kanada Rishi, the founder of the Vaiseshika system
of philosophy.
Rishi Kanada is also known by the names, Aulukya and Kasyapa.
The Vaiseshika system takes its name from Visesha or particularity
which is the characteristic differentia of things. The aphorisms of
Kanada contain the essence of the Vaiseshika philosophy. The principal
subject treated therein is Visesha, one of the six Padarthas or categories
enumerated by the founder.
The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika
The Vaiseshika and the Nyaya agree in their essential principles, such
as the nature and qualities of the Self and the atomic theory of the
universe. The Vaiseshika is a supplement to the Nyaya. The Vaiseshika
has, for its chief objective, the analysis of experience. It begins
by arranging its enquiries under categories (Padarthas), i.e., enumeration
of certain general properties or attributes that may be predicated of
existing things. It formulates general conceptions, which apply to things
known, whether by the senses or by inference, or by authority.
The Aphorisms Of Kanada
There are ten chapters in Kanada’s book. The first chapter deals
with the entire group of Padarthas or predicables. In the second chapter,
Kanada has ascertained substance. In the third chapter, he has given
a description of the soul and the inner sense. In the fourth chapter,
he has discussed the body and its constituents. In the fifth chapter,
he has established Karma or action. In the sixth chapter, he has considered
Dharma or virtue according to scriptures. In the seventh chapter, he
has established attribute and Samavaya (co-inherence or combination).
In the eighth chapter, he has ascertained the manifestation of knowledge,
its source, and so on. In the ninth chapter, he has established the
particular or concrete understanding. And, in the tenth chapter, he
has established the differences in the attributes of the soul.
There is enumeration of Padarthas (substances) in the beginning. Then
there is definition. Then comes examination or demonstration.
This system is chiefly concerned with the determination of the Padarthas
and yet, Kanada opens the subject with an enquiry into Dharma, because
Dharma is at the root of the knowledge of the essence of the Padarthas.
The first Sutra is: Yatobhyudayanihsreyasa-siddhih sa dharmah—Dharma
is that which exalts and bestows the Supreme Good or Moksha (cessation
of pain).
The Seven Padarthas Or Categories
Padartha means literally the meaning of a word. But here
it denotes a substance discussed in philosophy. A Padartha is an object
which can be thought (Artha) and named (Pada). All things which exist,
which can be perceived and named, all objects of experience, are Padarthas.
Compound substances are dependent and transitory. Simple substances
are eternal and independent.
The Padarthas of the Vaiseshika are the following: (i) Substance (Dravya),
(ii) Quality or property (Guna), (iii) Action (Karma), (iv) Generality
of properties (Samanya), (v) Particularity (Visesha), (vi) Co-inherence
or perpetual intimate relation (Samavaya), and (vii) Non-existence or
negation of existence (Abhava). The first three categories of substance,
quality and action have a real objective existence. The next three,
viz., generality, particularity and inherence are logical categories.
They are products of intellectual discrimination. Kanada enumerated
only six categories, the seventh was added by later writers.
Earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, soul and mind are the
nine Dravyas or substances. The first four of these and the last are
held to be atomic. The first four are both eternal and non-eternal,
non-eternal in their various compounds and eternal in their ultimate
atoms to which they must be traced back.
Mind is an eternal substance. It does not pervade everywhere like the
soul. It is atomic. It can admit only one thought at a time.
There are seventeen qualities inherent in the nine substances, viz.,
colour (Rupa), taste (Rasa), smell (Gandha), touch (Sparsa), numbers
(Sankhya), measures (Parimanani), separateness or individuality (Prithaktvam),
conjunction and disconjunction (Samyoga-vibhagam), priority and posterity
(Paratva-aparatva), intellection or understanding (Buddhayah), pleasure
and pain (Sukha-duhkha), desire and aversion (Ichha-dvesha), and volitions
(Prayatnah). Seven others are said to be implied, viz., gravity, fluidity,
viscidity, faculty, merit, demerit and sound—making twenty-four
in all. Sixteen of these qualities belong to material substances. The
other eight, viz., understanding, volition, desire, aversion, pleasure,
pain, merit and demerit are the properties of the soul.
The third category, Karma or action, consists of five kinds of acts,
viz., elevation or throwing upwards, depression or throwing downwards,
contraction, expansion and motion.
The fourth category, Samanya or generality of properties, is twofold,
viz., (i) higher and lower generality and (ii) that of genus and species.
The fifth category, Visesha or particularity, belongs to the nine eternal
substances of the first category, all of which have an eternal ultimate
difference distinguishing each from the others. Therefore, the system
is called Vaiseshika.
The sixth category, Samavaya or co-inherence, is of only one kind.
It is the co-inherence between a substance and its qualities, between
a genus or species and its individuals, between any object and the general
idea connected with it and is thought to be a real entity.
There are four kinds of Abhava, the seventh category, viz., antecedent
non-existence, cessation of existence, mutual non-existence and absolute
non-existence.
Knowledge of the Padarthas Secures Supreme Good
Knowledge of the Padarthas is the means of attaining the Supreme Good.
The Supreme Good results from the knowledge produced—by a particular
Dharma—of the essence of the Padarthas, by means of their resemblances
and differences.
The Principle Of Adrishta And Its Inadequacies
Kanada does not openly refer to God in his Sutras. His belief was that
the formation of the world was the result of Adrishta, the unseen
force of Karmas or acts. He traces the primal activities of the
atoms and souls to the principle of Adrishta.
The followers of Kanada introduce God as the efficient cause of the
world. The atoms are the material cause of the universe.
The unthinking atoms have not the power and the intelligence to run
this universe in an orderly manner. Surely, the activities of the atoms
are regulated by an omniscient and omnipotent God. Inference and scriptures
compel us to admit God. What is that intelligence which makes the Adrishta
to operate? That intelligence is God. The five elements are effects.
They must be preceded by someone who has a knowledge of them. That ‘someone’
is God. There must be an author for the Vedas. The contents of the Vedas
are destitute of error. The author is free from deceit. He must be an
omniscient Being.
The souls are destitute of intelligence in the state of dissolution.
Hence they cannot control the activities of the atoms. There is no source
of motion within the atoms. Therefore, there must be a first mover of
the atom. That First Mover is the Creator or God.
Atomic Theory Of The Universe
In the Vaiseshika system, the formation of the world is supposed to
be effected by the aggregation of atoms. These atoms are countless and
eternal. They are eternally aggregated, disintegrated and redisintegrated
by the power of Adrishta. An atom is defined as ‘something existing,
having no cause, and eternal’. It is less than the least, invisible,
indivisible, intangible and imperceptible by the senses. Each atom has
a Visesha or eternal essence of its own. The combination of these atoms
is first into an aggregate of two (Dvyanu, dyad). Three of them, again
combine into a particle, called Trasarenu (Triad), which like a mote
in a sunbeam has just sufficient magnitude to be perceptible.
There are four classes of Paramanus, viz., Paramanus of earth, water,
fire and air. The individual atoms combine with others, and again disintegrate
after some time.
The Vaiseshika cosmogony is dualistic in the sense of assuming the
existence of eternal atoms side by side with eternal souls. It has not
decided positively the exact relation between soul and matter.
Body And Soul
The body is subtle in Pralaya and gross in creation. The time, place
and circumstances of birth, family and the span of life are all determined
by the Adrishta.
The individual souls are eternal, manifold, eternally separate from
one another, and distinct from the body, senses and mind; and yet capable
of apprehension, volition, desire, aversion, pleasure, pain, merit and
demerit. They are infinite, ubiquitous or omnipresent and diffused everywhere
throughout space. A man’s soul is as much in New York as in Bombay,
although it can only apprehend and feel and act where the body is. The
soul and the mind are not objects of perception.
The soul is absolutely free from all connections with qualities in
the state of Moksha or release. It regains its independence.
Birth, Death And Salvation
Conjunction of soul with body, sense and life, produced by Dharma and
Adharma, is called birth, and disjunction of body and mind produced
by them is called death.
Moksha consists in the non-existence of conjunction with the body,
when there is, at the same time, no potential body existing and consequently
rebirth cannot take place.
Bondage And Release
Pleasure and pain result from the contact of soul, sense, mind and
object.
From pleasure arises desire. From pleasure derived from the enjoyment
of garlands, sandal paste, women and other objects, Raga or desire is
produced successively for pleasure of a similar kind or for the means
of attaining it. From pain caused by snakes, scorpions, thorns and the
like, aversion arises with regard to such pain or with regard to its
source.
A very powerful impression is produced by constant or habitual experience
of objects, through the influence of which, a sad lover who does not
win his mistress sees his beloved in every object. He who has been bitten
by a snake beholds snakes everywhere, on account of a strong impression
regarding that.
The Faults That Lead to Bondage
Desire (Raga), aversion (Dvesha) and infatuation (Moha) are called
faults (Doshas), as they are incentives to activity which serves to
bind the doer to this world. Gautama also says: “Faults have for
their characteristic, incitement to activity or worldly occupation”
(Nyaya Sutras, I-1-xviii).
The Knowledge That Results In Release
Intuitive knowledge of the Self destroys false knowledge. Consequently,
attraction, aversion, stupidity or Moha and other faults vanish. Then
activity also disappears. Then birth due to action does not take place.
Consequently, pain connected with birth also disappears.
Introduction
Obeisance to Sri Kapila Muni, the founder of the Sankhya system of
philosophy, the son of Brahma, the Avatara of Vishnu.
The word ‘Sankhya’ means ‘number’. The system gives
an enumeration of the principles of the universe, twenty-five in number.
Hence the name is quite appropriate. The term ‘Sankhya’ is
used in the sense of ‘Vichara’ or ‘philosophical reflection’
also.
In the Sankhya system, there is no analytical enquiry into the universe
as actually existing, arranged under topics and categories. There is
a synthetical system, starting from an original primordial Tattva or
Principle, called Prakriti, that which evolves or produces or brings
forth (Prakaroti) everything else.
Perception (Pratyaksha), inference (Anumana) and right affirmation
(Apta Vakya) are the three Pramanas or proofs in the Sankhya system.
The word Apta means fit or right. It is applied to the Vedas or inspired
teachers. The Naiyayikas have four kinds of proofs, viz., perception,
inference, comparison and verbal authority. The Mimamsakas recognise
six kinds of proofs.
Dual Concept of Purusha and Prakriti
The Sankhya system is generally studied next to the Nyaya. It is a
beautiful system of philosophy. The western philosophers also have great
admiration for this system. It is more categorically dualistic. It denies
that anything can be produced out of nothing. It assumes the reality
of Purusha and Prakriti, the knowing Self and the objects known.
Prakriti and Purusha are Anadi (beginningless) and Ananta (infinite).
Non-discrimination between the two is the cause for birth and death.
Discrimination between Prakriti and Purusha gives Mukti (salvation).
Both Purusha and Prakriti are Sat (real). Purusha is Asanga (unattached).
He is consciousness, all-pervading and eternal. Prakriti is doer and
enjoyer. Souls are countless.
Non-acceptance of Isvara or God
The Sankhya system is called Nir-Isvara (Godless) Sankhya. It is atheistical.
The Sankhyas do not believe in Isvara. They do not accept Isvara (God).
The creation produced by Prakriti has an existence of its own, independent
of all connection with the particular Purusha to which it is united.
So the Sankhyas say that there is no need for an intelligent Creator
of the world, or even of any superintending power.
This is a mistake; according to the Vedanta, Prakriti is always under
the control of the Lord. It cannot do anything by itself. The Lord gazes
at Prakriti. Then alone it is put in motion, and it begins to create.
Prakriti is non-intelligent. An intelligent Creator alone can have a
thought-out plan for the universe. Prakriti is only a helper (Sahakari).
This is the theory of Vedanta.
Theory of Evolution and Involution
The Sankhya adopts the theory of evolution and involution. The cause
and effect are the undeveloped and developed states of one and the same
substance. There is no such thing as total destruction. In destruction,
the effect is involved into its cause. That is all.
There cannot be any production of something out of nothing. That which
is not cannot be developed into that which is. The production of what
does not already exist potentially is impossible like a horn on a man,
because there must, of necessity, be a material out of which a product
is developed, and because everything cannot occur everywhere at all
times, and also because anything possible must be produced from something
competent to produce it.
That which does not exist cannot be brought into existence by an agent.
It would be useless to grind groundnut, unless the oil existed in it.
The same force applied to sand or orange would not express groundnut
oil. The manifestation of the oil is a proof that it was contained in
the groundnut and consequently, a proof of the existence of the source
from which it is derived.
The effect truly exists beforehand in its cause. This is one of the
central features of the Sankhya system of philosophy. Cause is a substance
in which the effect subsists in a latent form. Just as the whole tree
exists in a latent or dormant state in the seed, so also the whole world
exists in a latent state in Prakriti, the Avyakta (unevolved), or the
Avyakrita (undifferentiated). The effect is of the same nature as the
cause. The effect or product is not different from the material of which
it is composed.
Fourfold Classification of the Twenty-five Tattvas
The Sankhya gives a description of categories based on their respective
productive efficiency, viz., (i) Productive (Prakriti), (ii) Productive
and Produced (Prakriti-Vikriti), (iii) Produced (Vikriti) and (iv) Neither
Productive nor Produced (Anubhavarupa). This fourfold classification
includes all the twenty-five principles or Tattvas. Prakriti or Nature
or Pradhana (chief) is purely productive. It is the root of all. It
is not a product. It is a creative force, evolver, producer. Seven principles—intellect
(Buddhi), egoism (Ahankara) and the five Tanmatras (subtle rudiments)—are
productions and productive. Buddhi is productive, as Ahankara is evolved
out of it. It is produced also, as it itself is evolved out of Prakriti.
Egoism is a production, as it is derived from intellect. It is productive,
as it gives origin to the five subtle rudiments or Tanmatras. The subtle
rudiments are derived from egoism. Hence they are productions. They
give origin to the five elements. Hence they are productive. The sixteen
principles, the ten organs, the mind and the five elements, are productions
only. They are unproductive, because none of them can give birth to
a substance essentially different from itself. The Purusha or Spirit
is neither a production, nor is it productive. It is without attributes.
The Object of the Sankhya Philosophy
The enquiry into this system of philosophy is to find out the means
for eradicating the three sorts of pain, viz., internal or Adhyatmika
(e.g., fever and other diseases), celestial or Adhidaivika (thunder,
cold, heat, rain, etc.), and external or Adhibhautika (pain from animals,
scorpion, etc.), and the disease of rebirths. Pain is an embarrassment.
It stands in the way of doing Yoga Sadhana and attaining Moksha or release.
Kapila Muni imparted a knowledge of the twenty-five principles which
annihilates this pain. According to the Sankhya philosophy, he who knows
the twenty-five principles attains liberation. The ultimate cessation
of the three kinds of pain is the final goal of life.
Prakriti
‘Prakriti’ means that which is primary, that which precedes
what is made. It comes from ‘Pra’ (before) and ‘Kri’
(to make). It resembles the Vedantic Maya. It is the one root of the
universe. It is called Pradhana or the chief, because all effects are
founded on it and it is the root of the universe and of all objects.
Characteristics of Prakriti
Pradhana or Prakriti is eternal, all-pervading, immovable. It is one.
It has no cause, but is the cause of all effects. Prakriti is independent
and uncaused, while the products are caused and dependent. Prakriti
depends only on the activity of its own constituent Gunas (metaphysical
properties).
Prakriti is destitute of intelligence. It is like a string of three
strands. The three Gunas form the three strands. Prakriti is mere dead
matter which is equipped with certain potentialities due to the Gunas.
The Modifications of Prakriti
Crude matter is without form. Mahat or the Cosmic Intelligence is its
first form. Intellect is the matter for egoism. Egoism is a form of
intellect. It is the matter from which the senses and the rudimental
elements are formed. The senses and the rudimental elements are forms
of egoism. The gross elements are forms of the rudimental elements.
Intellect, egoism and the five subtle rudiments or Tanmatras are the
effects of Prakriti. This creation, from intellect down to the elements,
is brought about by the modifications of Prakriti. Having observed the
effects, the cause (Prakriti) is inferred. It is imperceptible from
its subtlety. It must, therefore, be inferred from its effects.
The Function of Prakriti
Prakriti is the basis of all objective existence. Prakriti does not
create for itself. All objects are for the enjoyment of the spirit or
soul. Prakriti creates only when it comes into union with Purusha, like
a crystal vase with a flower. This work is done for the emancipation
of each soul. As it is the function of milk to nourish the calf, so
it is the function of Prakriti to liberate the soul.
The Gunas
According to the Sankhya philosophy, Prakriti is composed of three
Gunas or forces, called Sattva (purity, light, harmony), Rajas (passion,
activity, motion) and Tamas (inertia, darkness, inertness, inactivity).
Guna means a cord. The Gunas bind the soul with a triple bond. These
Gunas are not the Nyaya-Vaiseshika Gunas. They are the actual substances
or ingredients, of which Prakriti is constituted. They make up the whole
world evolved out of Prakriti. They are not conjoined in equal quantities,
but in varying proportions, one or the other being in excess. Just as
Sat-Chit-Ananda is the Vedantic trinity, so also the Gunas are the Sankhyan
trinity.
Interaction Between the Gunas Leads to Evolution
The three Gunas are never separate. They support one another. They
intermingle with one another. They are intimately related as the flame,
the oil and the wick of a lamp. They form the very substance of Prakriti.
All objects are composed of the three Gunas. The Gunas act on one another.
Then there is evolution or manifestation. Destruction is only non-manifestation.
The Gunas are the objects. Purusha is the witness-subject. Prakriti
evolves under the influence of Purusha. Mahat or the Great (Intellect),
the Cause of the whole world, is the first product of the evolution
of Prakriti. Ahankara arises after Buddhi. Agency belongs to Ahankara.
It is the principle that creates individuality. Mind is born of Ahankara.
It carries out the orders of the will through the organs of action (Karma
Indriyas). It reflects and doubts (Sankalpa-Vikalpa). It synthesises
the sense-data into percepts. The mind takes part in both perception
and action. There is no separate Prana Tattva in the Sankhya system.
The Vedanta system has a separate Prana Tattva. In the Sankhya system,
mind, with the organs, produces the five vital airs. Prana is a modification
of the senses. It does not subsist in their absence.
Characteristics of the Three Gunas
Sattva is equilibrium. When Sattva prevails, there is peace or tranquillity.
Rajas is activity which is expressed as Raga-Dvesha, likes or dislikes,
love or hatred, attraction or repulsion. Tamas is that binding force
with a tendency to lethargy, sloth and foolish actions. It causes delusion
or non-discrimination.
When Sattva is predominant, it overpowers Rajas and Tamas. When Rajas
is dominant, it overpowers Sattva and Tamas. When Tamas is predominant,
it overpowers Rajas and Sattva.
How Man Is Affected by the Three Gunas
There are three Gunas in every man. Sometimes, Sattva prevails in him.
Then he is calm and tranquil. He reflects and meditates. At other times,
Rajas prevails in him and he does various sorts of worldly activities.
He is passionate and active. Sometimes, Tamas prevails. He becomes lazy,
dull, inactive and careless. Tamas generates delusion.
Again, one of these Gunas is generally predominant in different men.
A Sattvic man is virtuous. He leads a pure and pious life. A Rajasic
man is passionate and active. A Tamasic man is dull and inactive.
Sattva makes a man divine and noble, Rajas makes him thoroughly human
and selfish, and Tamas makes him bestial and ignorant. There is much
Sattva in a sage or saint and there is much Rajas in a soldier, politician
and businessman.
The Purusha
Characteristics of the Purusha
The Purusha or the Self is beyond Prakriti. It is eternally separate
from the latter. Purusha is without beginning or end. It is without
attributes and without qualities. It is subtle and omnipresent. It is
beyond mind, intellect and the senses. It is beyond time, space and
causality. It is the eternal seer. It is perfect and immutable. It is
pure consciousness (Chidrupa).
The Purusha is not the doer. It is the witness. The Purusha is like
a crystal without any colour. It appears to be coloured by the different
colours which are placed before it. It is not material. It is not a
result of combination. Hence it is immortal. The Purushas or souls are
infinite in number, according to the Sankhya. There are many Purushas.
If the Purushas were one, all should become free if any one attained
release.
The different souls are fundamentally identical in nature. There is
no movement for the Purusha. It does not go anywhere when it attains
freedom or release.
Souls exist eternally separate from each other and from Prakriti. Each
soul retains its individuality. It remains unchanged through all transmigrations.
Each soul is a witness of the act of a separate creation, without taking
part in the act. It is a looker-on uniting itself with the unintelligent
Prakriti, like a lame man mounted on a blind man’s shoulders, in
order to behold the phenomena of creation, which Prakriti herself is
not able to observe.
The Purusha or the Self is the witness (Sakshi), a spectator (Drashta),
a by-stander (Madhyastha), solitary (Kaivalya), passive and indifferent
(Udasina).
Inference of the Existence of the Purusha
Intelligence cannot belong to the intellect, because the intellect
is material and is the effect of Prakriti which is non-intelligent.
If intelligence is absent in the cause, it cannot manifest itself in
the effect. Therefore, there must be a distinct principle of intelligence
and this principle is Purusha or the Self.
The insentient body seems sentient on account of its union with the
Self, and the Self appears as the agent. Just as a pot with cold water
appears to be cold, with hot water seems to be hot, so intellect and
the rest seem to be sentient on account of union with the Purusha. This
mutual transfer of properties is like that of fire and iron, or that
of the sun and water.
There must be a Supervisor over and above the Pradhana or Prakriti.
The Supervisor is Purusha or the Self.
Prakriti and its products are objects of enjoyment. There must exist
an enjoyer who must be an intelligent principle. This intelligent enjoyer
is Purusha or the Self.
Just as chair and bench are for the use of another, so also this body,
senses and mind are for the use of the Self which is immaterial, as
it is destitute of attributes and as it is beyond the Gunas. The Purusha
is the witness of the Gunas. The Gunas are the objects. Purusha is the
witness-subject. Hence, it is not affected by pleasure, pain and delusion
which are attributes of the three Gunas, Sattva, Rajas and Tamas, respectively.
If pain is natural to the Purusha and if the Purusha is not naturally
free from the action of the Gunas, no salvation from rebirth is possible.
Purusha and Prakriti—A Contrast
The characteristics of Prakriti and Purusha are contrary in nature.
Purusha is consciousness, while Prakriti is non-consciousness. Purusha
is inactive (Akarta), while Prakriti is active. Purusha is destitute
of the Gunas, while Prakriti is characterised by the three Gunas. Purusha
is unchanging, while Prakriti is changing. The knower is Purusha. The
known is Prakriti. The knower is the subject or the silent witness.
The known is the visible object.
The Universe
The world is evolved with its different elements when the equilibrium
in Prakriti is disturbed. The countless Purushas exert on Prakriti a
mechanical force which distracts the equipoise of Prakriti and produces
a movement. Then the evolution of the universe starts.
The Process of Evolution and Involution
Prakriti is the root of the universe. Prakriti is both the material
and the efficient cause of the universe. From this Prakriti emanates
the cosmic Buddhi or Mahat. From Mahat proceeds the cosmic Ahankara
or the principle of egoism. From this egoism emanate the ten senses
and the mind on the subjective side, and the five subtle Tanmatras of
sound, smell, taste, colour and touch on the objective side. From these
Tanmatras proceed the five gross elements—earth, water, fire, air
and ether.
Akasa (ether) has the property of sound which is the Vishaya or object
for the ear. Vayu (air) has the property of touch which is the Vishaya
for the skin. Tejas (fire) has the property of form or colour which
is the Vishaya for the eye. Apas (water) has the property of taste which
is the Vishaya for the tongue. Prithvi (earth) has the property of odour
which is the Vishaya for the nose. Each of these elements, after the
first, has also the property of the preceding besides its own.
During dissolution of the world, the products return by a reverse movement
into the preceding stages of development, and ultimately into Prakriti.
Earth merges in its cause, water, water in fire, fire in air, air in
Akasa; and Akasa in Ahankara, Ahankara in Mahat, and Mahat in Prakriti.
This is the process of involution. There is no end to Samsara or the
play of Prakriti. This cycle of evolution and involution has neither
a beginning nor an end.
The Process Of Knowledge
An object excites the senses. The mind arranges the sense-impressions
into a percept. Egoism refers it to the Self. Intellect forms the concept.
It converts the percept into a concept and presents it to the Purusha.
Then there is knowledge of the object.
Before you engage in any matter, you first observe or consider, then
you reflect, and then determine: “This must be done by me;”
and then you proceed to act. This ascertainment: “Such act is to
be done by me,” is the determination of the intellect (Adhyavasaya).
The intellect is an instrument which receives the ideas or images conveyed
through the organs of sense and the mind, constructs them into a conclusive
idea, and presents this idea to the Self. The function of the intellect
is determination (Nischaya).
The mind is both an organ of sensation and of action. The senses receive
simple impressions from without. The mind cooperates with the senses,
and then the impressions are perceived. The mind ponders, the intellect
determines, and egoism becomes conscious.
Agency belongs to egoism—the Ahankara or the I-maker—which
is itself a product of Prakriti, but not to the Purusha or Self who
is always a silent witness.
Intellect, egoism, mind and the eye see a form at once, in one instant,
and come immediately to the conclusion, say, “This is a jar.”
The same three, with the tongue, at once relish taste; with the nose
smell; and so with the ear and the skin. The function is also occasionally
gradual. A man going along a road sees an object at a distance. A doubt
arises in his mind whether it is a post or a man. He then sees a bird
sitting on it. Then the doubt is removed by the reflection of the mind.
The intellect makes a determination that it is a post only. Then the
egoism say: “I am certain it is a post only.” In this way,
the functions of the mind, intellect, egoism and the eye are gradual,
also. There is leisure for the eye to see, for the mind to reflect or
consider, for egoism to apply, and for the intellect to conclude. There
is another example. The ear hears the twang of a bowstring; the mind
reflects that this must be for the shooting of an arrow; egoism says:
“It is aimed at me;” and the intellect determines: “I
must run at once.”
The intellect, the mind and egoism are the doorkeepers. The five senses
of perception or Jnana-Indriyas are the gates. The intellect is the
instrument or organ which is the medium between the senses and the Self.
The Intellect And Its Functions
The intellect or the Buddhi is the most important of all the products
of Prakriti. The senses present their objects to the intellect. The
intellect exhibits them to the Purusha. The intellect discriminates
the difference between Purusha and Prakriti.
The intellect is the instrument or organ which is the medium between
the other organs and the Self. All ideas derived from sensation, reflection,
or consciousness are deposited in the chief or great instrument, intellect,
before they can be made known to the Self for whose use and advantage
alone they have assembled. They convey impressions or ideas with the
properties or effects of pleasure, pain and indifference, accordingly
as they are influenced by the qualities of Sattva (purity), Rajas (passion)
or Tamas (darkness).
Just as the headman of a village collects the taxes from the villagers
and pays them to the collector of the district, just as the local collector
pays the amount to the minister, and the minister receives it for the
use of the state, so also the mind receives the ideas from the external
organs, transfers them to egoism, and egoism delivers them to the intellect
which is the general superintendent and takes charge of them for the
use of the Sovereign Self.
The intellect is the prime minister of Purusha. It brings for Purusha
the fruition of all that is to be experienced. It appears to be intelligent
on account of the reflection of Purusha which is very near to it, though,
by itself, it is really non-intelligent.
The Jiva
The Jiva is the soul in union with the senses. It is limited by the
body. It is endowed with egoism. The reflection of Purusha in the Buddhi
or intellect appears as the ego or the empirical soul. It is associated
with ignorance and Karma. It is subject to pleasure and pain, action
and its fruits, and rotates in the cycle of births and deaths.
The Jiva must realise the perfection of the Purusha. It must attain
to the status of the Purusha. Every Jiva has in it the higher Purusha
hidden within. It must become conscious of the real nature of the higher
Purusha. Freedom or perfection is a return into one’s true Self.
It is the removal of an illusion which conceals one’s true nature.
Release
Bondage belongs to Prakriti, but is attributed to Purusha. Purusha
is eternally free. Union of Purusha with Prakriti due to non-discrimination
is bondage; the failure to discriminate between Purusha and Prakriti
is the cause of Samsara or bondage; and disunion of Purusha and Prakriti
due to discrimination is emancipation. Release is not merging in the
Absolute. but isolation from Prakriti.
The object of the Sankhya system is to effect the liberation of the
Purusha or Self from the fetters which bind it on account of its union
with Prakriti. This is done by conveying the correct knowledge of the
twenty-four constituent principles of creation, and rightly discriminating
the Self from them.
In the Sankhya system, the Pramanas or means of obtaining the correct
measure of existing things, are three, viz., Pratyaksha or perception
by the senses, Anumana (inference) and Apta-Vachana (trustworthy testimony).
How Release Is Effected
When the separation of the soul from the body takes place by destruction
of the effects of virtue, vice and the rest, and Prakriti ceases to
act in respect to it, then there is the final and absolute emancipation
or the final beatitude.
When the fruits of acts cease, and body—both gross and subtle—dissolves,
Nature does not exist with respect to the individual soul. The soul
attains the state called Kaivalya. It is freed from the three kinds
of pain.
The Linga-Deha or subtle body which migrates from one gross body to
another in successive births, is composed of intellect, egoism, mind,
the five organs of knowledge, the five organs of action and the five
Tanmatras. The impressions of actions done in various births are imbedded
in the subtle body. The conjunction of the Linga-Deha with the gross
physical body constitutes birth and separation of the Linga-Deha from
the gross physical body is death. This Linga-Deha is destroyed by the
knowledge of the Purusha.
When one attains perfect Knowledge, virtue and vice become destitute
of causal energy, but the body continues for some time on account of
the previous impulse, just as after the action of the potter has stopped,
the wheel continues to revolve owing to the momentum given to it.
Release Is Nothing but Termination of the Play
of Prakriti
The union of the Self with Nature or Prakriti is like the association
of a lame man with a blind man. A lame man and a blind man were deserted
by their fellow-travellers in a forest. They agreed to divide between
them the duties of walking and of seeing. The lame man mounted himself
on the shoulders of the blind man and directed the blind man. The blind
man was able to pursue his route by the directions of his friend. Even
so, the Self is like the lame man. The faculty of seeing is in the Self,
not that of moving. The faculty of moving, but not of seeing, is in
Prakriti. Prakriti is like the blind man. The lame man and the blind
man separated when they reached their destination. Even so, Prakriti,
having effected the liberation of the Self, ceases to act. The Self
obtains Kaivalya or the final beatitude. Consequently, their respective
purposes being effected, the connection between them terminates. The
Self attains liberation by knowledge of Prakriti.
Prakriti’s performances are solely for the benefit and enjoyment
of the Self. Prakriti takes hold of the hand of the Self and shows it
the whole show of the universe, and makes it enjoy everything which
this world can give, and lastly helps it in its liberation.
In truth, the Self is neither bound nor released, nor does it migrate,
but Nature alone in relation to various beings is bound, is released,
and migrates.
As a dancing girl, having exhibited herself on the stage to the spectators,
stops dancing, so also Nature ceases to function when she has made herself
manifest to the Purusha or the Self. Nothing is more modest than Prakriti,
when she becomes conscious that she has been seen by the Purusha. She
does not again expose herself to the gaze of the Purusha.
Introduction
Prostrations to Sri Patanjali Maharshi, the exponent of the Raja Yoga
system of philosophy, the first systematiser of the Yoga school, whose
‘Yoga Sutras’ is the basic text.
The word Yoga comes from the root Yuj which means to join.
Yoga is restraint of the activities of the mind, and is the union of
the individual soul with the Supreme Soul.
Hiranyagarbha is the founder of the Yoga system. The Yoga founded by
Patanjali Maharshi is a branch or supplement of the Sankhya. It has
its own charm for students of a mystic temperament and of a contemplative
type. It claims greater orthodoxy than the Sankhya proper by directly
acknowledging the existence of a Supreme Being (Isvara).
The God of Patanjali is a Special Purusha or Particular Soul unaffected
by afflictions, works, fruition and vehicles. In Him is the highest
limit of the seed of omniscience. He, being unconditioned by time, is
the Teacher of even the ancients. He is ever free.
The sacred syllable Om is the symbol of God. Repetition of Om and meditation
on Om, should be practised. This will remove all obstacles and will
lead to the attainment of God-realisation.
The Yoga Sutras
The ‘Yoga Sutras’ of Patanjali form the oldest textbook of
the Yoga school. It has four chapters. The first chapter, Samadhi Pada,
deals with the nature and aim of
Samadhi. The second chapter, Sadhana Pada, explains the means of attaining
this end. The third chapter, Vibhuti Pada, gives a description of the
supernatural powers or Siddhis that can be achieved through the Yoga
practices. The fourth chapter, Kaivalya Pada, describes the nature of
salvation.
Raja Yoga and Hatha Yoga
Patanjali’s Yoga is Ashtanga-Yoga or Yoga with eight limbs. This
Yoga deals with the discipline of the mind and its psychic powers. Hatha
Yoga treats of the methods of bodily control and regulation of breath.
The culmination of Hatha Yoga is Raja Yoga. A progressive Sadhana in
Hatha Yoga leads to the accomplishment of Raja Yoga. Hatha Yoga is a
ladder to ascend to the stage or summit of Raja Yoga. When the movement
of breath is stopped by means of Kumbhaka, the mind becomes supportless.
Purification of the body and control of breath is the direct aim of
Hatha Yoga. The Shat-Karmas or six acts of purification of the body
are Dhauti (cleansing of the stomach), Basti (natural form of enema),
Neti (cleansing of the nostrils), Trataka (unwinkingly gazing at some
object), Nauli (churning of the belly) and Kapalabhati (removal of the
phlegm through a certain kind of Pranayama). The body is rendered healthy,
light, strong and steady by the practice of Asanas, Bandhas and Mudras.
Yoga—A Methodical Effort to Control the Mind
Yoga is a method of strict discipline. It imposes restrictions on diet,
sleep, company, behaviour, speech and thought. It should be practised
under the careful supervision of an expert and illumined Yogi.
Yoga, is a methodical effort to control the mind and attain perfection.
Yoga heightens the power of concentration, arrests the wanderings and
vagaries of the mind, and helps to attain the superconscious state or
Nirvikalpa Samadhi. The practice of Yoga removes restlessness of body
and mind. It removes the impurities of the mind also and steadies it.
The aim of Yoga is to teach the means by which the individual soul may
attain complete union with the Supreme Soul. This fusion or blending
of the individual soul with the Supreme Purusha is effected by controlling
the Vrittis or thoughts of the mind. This is a state which is as clear
as crystal, since the mind is not coloured by contact with worldly objects.
The Yoga And The Sankhya
Kapila’s system is Nirisvara Sankhya, as in it there is no Isvara
or God. The system of Patanjali is Sa-Isvara Sankhya, because there
is Isvara or Special Purusha in it, who is untouched by afflictions,
works, desires, etc. Patanjali built his system on the background of
the metaphysics of the Sankhya. Patanjali accepts the twenty-five principles
of the Sankhya. He accepts the metaphysical view of the Sankhya system,
but lays great emphasis upon the practical side of self-discipline for
the realisation of the absolute unity of the Purusha or true Self.
Sankhya is a system of metaphysics. Yoga is a system of practical discipline.
The former lays emphasis upon investigation and reasoning, and the latter
upon concentration of the will-power.
The individual soul in the Yoga has greater freedom. It can attain
salvation with the help of God. The Sankhya maintains that knowledge
is the means to salvation. The Yoga holds that concentration, meditation
and Samadhi will lead to Kaivalya or Independence. The Yoga system holds
that the Yogic process consists in the suppression of the diversities
of mental functions and the concentration of the mental energy on the
self-luminous Purusha.
The Eight Limbs Of Raja Yoga
Raja Yoga is known by the name Ashtanga-Yoga or the Yoga with Eight
Limbs. The eight limbs are: (i) Yama (restraint), (ii) Niyama (observances),
(iii) Asana (posture), (iv) Pranayama (control of breath), (v) Pratyahara
(withdrawal of the senses), (vi) Dharana (concentration), (vii) Dhyana
(meditation), and (viii) Samadhi (superconscious state). The first five
of these form the external limbs (Bahir-anga) of Yoga. The last three
form the internal limbs (Antar-anga) of Yoga.
Yama and Niyama
The practice of Yama and Niyama constitutes ethical discipline. It
prepares the Yogic student for the real practice of Yoga. The Yogic
student should practise non-violence, truthfulness, continence, non-stealing,
and non-acceptance of gifts which are conducive to luxurious living;
and practise purity, contentment, austerity, sacred study and surrender
to God. The chief of them is non-violence (Ahimsa). All other virtues
are rooted in Ahimsa. Non-violence is abstinence from malice towards
all living beings—in every way and at all times. It is not merely
non-violence, but non-hatred. The Yamas or restraints are the great
universal vows (Mahavrata), not limited by caste, place or country,
time or circumstances. They must be practised by all. There are no exceptions
to these principles. Not even self-defence can justify murder for one
who is practising the vow of non-violence. He should not kill even his
enemy if he is to practise Yoga rigorously.
Asana, Pranayama and Pratyahara
Asana is steady, comfortable posture. Asana or posture is a physical
help to concentration. When one obtains mastery over the Asana, he is
free from the disturbance of the pairs of opposites. Pranayama or regulation
of breath leads to tranquillity and steadiness of mind, and good health.
Pratyahara is introversion. It is withdrawal of the senses from their
objects. Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama and Pratyahara are accessories
to Yoga.
Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi
Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi are the three consecutive stages of the
same process of mental concentration and are thus parts of an organic
whole. Dharana is the effort to fix the mind steadily upon an object.
Dhyana is continuous and unbroken fixity of the mind upon the object.
Samadhi is fixity of the mind upon the object with such intensity of
concentration as to become the object itself. The mind is wholly merged
in and identified with the object upon which it is fixed.
Samyama or concentration, meditation and Samadhi are one and the same,
that gives a knowledge of supersensual objects. Siddhis are by-products
of concentration. The supernatural powers are really obstacles to Samadhi
or freedom.
Yoga Samadhi And Its Characteristics
Dhyana or meditation culminates in Samadhi. The object of meditation
is Samadhi. Samadhi is the goal of Yoga discipline. Body and mind become
dead, as it were, to all external impressions. The connection with the
outer world is broken. In Samadhi, the Yogi enters into Supreme Silence
which is untouched by the ceaseless noises of the outer world. The mind
ceases its functioning. The senses are absorbed in the mind. When all
the modifications of the mind are controlled, the Seer, the Purusha,
rests in his own Self. Patanjali speaks of this in his Yoga Sutras as
Svarupa-Avasthanam (establishment in one’s true Self).
There are kinds or degrees of concentration or Samadhi, viz., Samprajnata
or conscious and Asamprajnata or superconscious. In Samprajnata Samadhi,
there are definite objects of concentration for resting. The mind remains
conscious of the object. Savitarka (with deliberation), Nirvitarka (without
deliberation), Savichara (with reflection), Nirvichara (without reflection),
Sananda (with joy), and Sasmita (with the sense of personality) are
forms of Samprajnata Samadhi. In Samprajnata Samadhi, there is a clear
consciousness of the object meditated upon, as distinct from the subject.
In Asamprajnata Samadhi, this distinction vanishes, it being transcended.
Conditions For Success In Raja Yoga
The Importance of Yama and Niyama
Aspirants who desire to attain God-realisation should practise all
the eight limbs of Yoga. On the destruction of the impurities through
the practice of the eight limbs—or accessories—of Yoga, arises
the light of wisdom leading to the discriminative knowledge.
For the attainment of Samadhi or union with the Divine, the practice
of Yama and Niyama is an indispensable necessity. The Yogic student
should practise Yama and observe Niyama side by side. It is not possible
to attain perfection in meditation and Samadhi without the observance
of the practice of Yama and Niyama. You cannot have concentration of
mind without removing falsehood, deceit, cruelty, lust, etc., within.
Without concentration of mind, meditation and Samadhi cannot be attained.
The Five Mental Planes According To The School Of
Patanjali
Kshipta, Mudha, Vikshipta, Ekagra and Niruddha are the five mental
planes according to the Raja Yoga school of Patanjali. The Kshipta plane
is that wherein the mind wanders amongst various sensual objects. The
mind is filled with Rajas. The Mudha plane is that wherein the mind
is in a state of sleep and impotence on account of Tamas. The Vikshipta
plane is that wherein Sattva preponderates, and the mind oscillates
between meditation and objectivity. The rays of the mind are slowly
collected and gathered. When Sattva increases, you will have cheerfulness
of mind, one-pointedness of mind, conquest of the senses and fitness
for the realisation of the Atman. The Ekagra plane is that wherein the
mind is one-pointed. There is deep meditation. Sattva is free from Rajas
and Tamas. The Niruddha plane is that wherein the mind is under perfect
control. All the Vrittis of the mind are annihilated.
A Vritti is a whirlpool or thought-wave in the mind-lake. Every Vritti
or mental modification leaves behind a Samskara or impression or latent
tendency. This Samskara may manifest itself as a conscious state when
the occasion arises. Similar Vrittis strengthen similar dispositions.
When all the Vrittis are arrested, the mind is in a balanced state (Samapatti).
Disease, langour, doubt, carelessness, laziness, worldliness, erroneous
perception, failure to attain concentration and instability in it when
attained, are the main obstacles to concentration.
The Five Klesas And Their Removal
According to Patanjali, Avidya (ignorance), Asmita (egoism), Raga-Dvesha
(desire and aversion, or likes and dislikes) and Abhinivesa (clinging
to mundane life) are the five great Klesas or afflictions that assail
the mind. These are alleviated by means of continued Yogic practice,
but not uprooted totally. They remain hidden in the form of seed. They
sprout out again the moment they find an opportunity and favourable
surroundings. But Asamprajnata Samadhi (Absolute-Experience) destroys
even the seeds of these evils.
Avidya is the main cause of all our troubles. Egoism is the immediate
result of Avidya. It fills us with desires and aversions, and veils
the spiritual vision. The practice of Yoga-Samadhi uproots Avidya.
Practice of Kriya-Yoga
Kriya-Yoga purifies the mind, attenuates or thins out the five afflictions,
and leads to Samadhi. Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (studying and understanding
of scriptures) and Isvarapranidhana (worship of God and surrendering
the fruit to God) constitute Kriya-Yoga.
Cultivation of friendliness (Maitri) towards equals, compassion (Karuna)
towards interiors, cheerfulness (Mudita) towards superiors and indifference
(Upeksha) towards wicked people (or with regard to things pleasant and
painful, good and bad) produce tranquillity of mind (Chitta-Prasada).
One can attain Samadhi through devotion to God. Devotion to God gives
freedom. By Isvarapranidhana, the Yogic student obtains the grace of
God.
Abhyasa and Vairagya
Abhyasa (practice) and Vairagya (dispassion, non-attachment) help in
steadying and controlling the mind. The mind should be withdrawn again
and again and brought back to the centre, whenever it goes out towards
sensual objects. This is Abhyasa Yoga. Practice becomes fixed and steady,
when pursued for a long time without any break and with perfect devotion.
The mind is a bundle of Trishnas (cravings). Practice of Vairagya will
destroy all Trishnas. Vairagya turns the mind away from the objects.
It does not allow the mind to go outwards (Bahirmukha action of the
mind), but promotes its Antarmukha (inward-going) action.
The State Of Kaivalya Or Absolute Independence
The goal of life is the absolute separation of Purusha from Prakriti.
Freedom in Yoga, is Kaivalya or absolute independence. The soul is freed
from the fetters of Prakriti. The Purusha is in its true form or Svarupa.
When the soul realises that it is absolutely independent, and that it
does not depend on anything else in this world, Kaivalya or Isolation
comes in. The soul has removed the Avidya through discriminative knowledge
(Viveka-khyati). The five Klesas or afflictions are burnt by the fire
of Knowledge. The Self is not touched by the conditions of the Chitta.
The Gunas retire to rest and the Self abides in its own divine essence.
Even if one becomes a Mukta (liberated Soul), Prakriti and its modifications
exist for others. This, the Yoga system holds, in agreement with the
Sankhya.
Introduction
Adorations to Sri Jaimini, the founder of the Purva Mimamsa system,
the disciple of Sri Vyasa Bhagavan!
Purva Mimamsa or Karma-Mimamsa is an enquiry into the earlier portion
of the Vedas, an enquiry into the ritual of the Vedas or that portion
of the Vedas which is concerned with the Mantras and the Brahmanas only.
The Purva Mimamsa is so called, because it is earlier (Purva) than the
Uttara Mimamsa, not so much in the chronological as in the logical sense.
Mimamsa—A System of Vedic Interpretation
Mimamsa is not a branch of any philosophical system. It is rather a
system of Vedic interpretation. Its philosophical discussions amount
to a kind of critical commentary on the Brahmana or ritual portion of
the Veda. It interprets the Vedas in the literal sense. The central
problem of Purva Mimamsa is ritual. Jaimini has systematised the rules
of Mimamsa and established their validity in his work. The rules of
Mimamsa are very important for the interpretation of the Hindu Law.
The Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini give a detailed description of the different
sacrifices and their purposes, the doctrine of Apurva, and also some
philosophical propositions. There are twelve chapters.
Sabara is the author of the chief commentary or Bhashya on the work
of Jaimini. Kumarila, the Guru of Bhavabhuti, commented on the Sutra
and the Bhashya. He proved the eternal character of the Vedas and the
efficiency of Vedic ceremonials. Prabhakara was a pupil of Kumarila.
He wrote a commentary on the Bhashya of Sabara.
Jaimini accepts the three Pramanas of perception (Pratyaksha), inference
(Anumana) and authoritative testimony (Sabda or Veda). Jaimini holds
that there is a perpetual connection between a word and its sense and
that sound is eternal.
The Eternal, Self-Existent Veda
Jaimini was an opponent of rationalism and theism. The Veda was practically
the only God for him. The eternal Veda needs no other basis to rest
on. There is no divine revealer. The Veda itself is authoritative. It
is the only source of our knowledge of Dharma. God was not necessary
for him and his system. He said that Veda was itself the authority.
His first aphorism ‘Athato Dharma-Jijnasa’ states the
whole aim and object of his system, viz., a desire to know Dharma or
duty, which consists in the performance of the rites and sacrifices
prescribed by the Veda. Dharma itself bestows the rewards. The aim of
Purva Mimamsa is to investigate into the nature of Dharma.
The Purva Mimamsa has a number of deities. The offerings may be made
to them. The practice of Vedic Dharma is not in need of any Supreme
Being or God. Vedic religion does not require the assistance of God.
The eternal self-existent Veda serves all the purposes of Jaimini and
the Purva Mimamsakas. Jaimini does not so much deny God as ignore Him.
Practice Of Vedic Dharma—The Key To Happiness
Dharma is enjoined by the Vedas, known as the Sruti. Its practice leads
to happiness. If the Smriti does not agree with the Sruti, the former
is to be ignored. The practice by virtuous men or custom comes next
to the Smriti. A Hindu should lead his life in accordance with the rules
of the Vedas. A Hindu must perform Nitya Karmas like Sandhya, etc.,
and Naimittika Karmas during proper occasions, to get salvation. These
are unconditional duties. If he fails to do these, he incurs the sin
of omission (Pratyavaya Dosha). He performs Kamya Karmas to attain special
ends. If he avoids prohibited actions (Nishiddha Karmas), he will
avoid hell. If he performs the unconditional duties, he will attain
salvation.
Some later Mimamsakas maintain that all works ought to be performed
as an offering to God or the Supreme Being. Then they become the cause
or means of emancipation.
If works or sacrifices are done in a mechanical way without feeling,
Sraddha (faith) and devotion, they cannot help one to attain salvation.
One may perform any number of sacrifices; and yet, there may not be
any change in the heart, if they are performed without the right spirit
or right mental attitude and right will. What is really wanted is not
the ceremonial sacrifice, but the sacrifice of selfishness, egoism and
Raga-Dvesha (likes and dislikes).
The Doctrine Of Apurva
The fruits or rewards of sacrifices are not dispensed by any beneficient
God. Apurva bestows the reward on the sacrificer. Apurva is
the link or necessary connection between work and its fruit or result.
Apurva is Adrishta. It is a positive, unseen force created by an act,
which leads to the attainment of the fruit of the action. This is the
view of Jaimini.
Others thinkers criticised severely that the unconscious or non-intelligent
Apurva could not bestow the rewards. The Mimamsa system could not satisfy
the intelligent, thoughtful men. Hence, the later Mimamsakas slowly
introduced God. They declared that if sacrifices were performed in honour
of the Supreme Being, it would lead to the achievement of the Supreme
Good. Apurva cannot act, unless it is moved by God or the Supreme Being.
He who makes the Apurva function is God.
The Self And Its Characteristics
The self is distinct from the body, the senses and the intellect. The
self is the experiencer or enjoyer. The body is the abode of experiences.
The senses are the instruments of experience. The self perceives when
it is in union with the mind. It experiences internally pleasure and
pain; and externally, objects such as trees, rivers, plants, etc.
The self is not the senses, because it persists even when the senses
are injured or destroyed. The body is made up of matter. The perceiver
is distinct from the body. The self directs the body. The body is a
servant of the self. There is some being which synthesises the various
sense-data. That being or entity is the self. The self is all-pervading
and imperishable. Selves are countless.
The real self survives the annihilation of the body. The performer
of a sacrifice goes to heaven. Jaimini does not believe in Moksha. He
believes in the existence of Svarga (heaven) attainable through Karma
or sacrifice. The Veda promises rewards to the sacrificer to be enjoyed
in another world.
The Later Mimamsakas
Prabhakara and Kumarila
Jaimini showed the way to attain happiness in Svarga or heaven, but
he did not tell anything about the problem of the final emancipation.
The later writers like Prabhakara and Kumarila, however, could not avoid
this problem of final salvation as it engaged the attention of the thinkers
of other schools. Prabhakara says that the absolute cessation of the
body caused by the total disappearance of Dharma and Adharma, whose
operation is the cause of rebirth, is ultimate release or liberation.
Man abandons prohibited acts, and the deeds which lead to happiness
in heaven. He does the necessary expiations for exhausting the previously
accumulated Karmas. He practises self-restraint and disciplines himself.
He develops virtuous qualities. He frees himself from rebirths by a
true knowledge of the self. One cannot attain release by mere knowledge.
Exhaustion of Karmas only can bring about release. Knowledge prevents
further accumulation of virtue and vice. Karma by itself cannot
lead to the attainment of the final emancipation. Raga-Dvesha (likes
and dislikes), which lead to the performance of actions, must be destroyed
if one wants to attain Moksha. Moksha is the cessation of pleasure and
pain. It is not a state of bliss, as the attributeless soul cannot have
even bliss. It is simply the natural form of the soul.
The view of Kumarila comes very near to the view of Advaita Vedantins.
Kumarila maintains that the Veda is composed by God and is Brahman in
the form of sounds. Moksha is a positive state for him. It is the realisation
of the Atman. He is of opinion that knowledge is not sufficient for
salvation. He thinks that final emancipation can be attained through
Karma (action) combined with Jnana (knowledge).
Jaimini’s Philosophy In A Nut-Shell
According to Jaimini, performance of the actions that are enjoined
in the Vedas is the Sadhana or means for attaining heaven. Karma-Kanda
is the chief section of the Vedas. The cause of bondage is the performance
of Nishiddha Karmas or prohibited actions. The self is Jada-Chetana,
a combination of insentiency and intelligence. Souls are countless.
The soul is doer and enjoyer. It is all-pervading. Jaimini does not
believe in the creation of the world. He believes in grades of happiness
in heaven and in Sadachara or right conduct, viz., Satyam Vada (Speak
the truth), Dharmam Chara (Perform duty).
Criticism Of Jaimini’s Philosophy
The Purva Mimamsa system of philosophy is said to be unsatisfactory
and incomplete, inasmuch as it does not deal with the problems of the
Ultimate Reality and its relation to soul and matter. There is no philosophical
view of the world. The central feature is the performance of the sacrifices.
This is the most essential or fundamental thing. “Perform sacrifices
and enjoy in Heaven”—this is the sum and substance of Jaimini’s
teaching. This is his Moksha or the final goal. This cannot give satisfaction
to the thinkers who know that the enjoyment in heaven is transitory,
imperfect, sensual and worldly.
Introduction
Prostrations and adorations to Sri Vyasa, the founder of Uttara Mimamsa
or the Vedanta system of philosophy, Avatara of Lord Vishnu, son of
Sri Parasara Rishi.
Uttara Mimamsa or the Vedanta philosophy of Vyasa or Badarayana is
placed as the last of the six orthodox systems, but, really, it ought
to stand first.
The Uttara Mimamsa conforms closely to the doctrines propounded in
the Upanishads. The term Vedanta means literally the end or
essence of the Veda. It contains the doctrines set forth in the
closing chapters of the Vedas. The closing chapters of the Vedas are
the Upanishads. The Upanishads really form the essence of the Vedas.
The Brahma Sutras Of Bhagavan Vyasa
Sri Vyasa wrote the Brahma Sutras or the Vedanta Sutras which explain
the doctrine of Brahman. Brahma Sutras are also known by the name Sariraka
Sutras, because they deal with the embodiment of the Supreme Nirguna
Brahman. ‘Brahma Sutras’ is one of the three books of the
Prasthana Traya, the three authoritative books on Hinduism, the other
two being the Upanishads and the Bhagavad-Gita. Sri Vyasa has systematised
the principles of Vedanta and removed the apparent contradictions in
the doctrines. The Brahma Sutras are 555 in number. Sri Sankara, Ramanuja,
Madhva, Nimbarka, Vallabha, Bhaskara, Yadavaprakasa, Kesava, Nilakantha,
Baladeva and Vijnana Bhikshu are the chief commentators on the Brahma
Sutras. Each has commented in his own way and built his own philosophy.
The most reputed teacher of this school of philosophy was Sri Sankaracharya.
Sri Vyasa has criticised the doctrines of the Vaiseshika system and
the Sankhya system. The several schools of Buddhism and the Bhagavata
doctrines are also discussed.
There are four chapters, viz., Samanvaya, Avirodha, Sadhana and Phala.
In the first chapter, an account of the nature of Brahman and of its
relation to the world and the individual soul, is given. In the second
chapter, the rival theories, viz., Sankhya, Yoga, Vaiseshika, etc.,
are criticised. Suitable answers are given to the objections levelled
against this view. In the third chapter, the means of attaining Brahma-Vidya
are treated. In the fourth chapter, there is a description of the fruits
of Brahma-Vidya. There is also a description of how the individual soul
reaches Brahman through the Devayana or the path of the Devas, whence
there is no return. The characteristics of the Jivanmukta or liberated
soul are also discussed in this chapter. Each chapter has four parts
(Padas). The Sutras in each part form Adhikaranas or topics.
The first five Sutras of the first chapter are very important. The
first Sutra is: “Athato Brahma-Jijnasa—Now, therefore,
the enquiry into Brahman.” The first aphorism states the object
of the whole system in one word, viz., Brahma-Jijnasa, the desire of
knowing Brahman. The second Sutra is: “Janmadyasya Yatah—Brahman
is the Supreme Being from whom proceeds the origin, sustenance and dissolution
of the world.” The third Sutra is: “Sastra-Yonitvat—The
scriptures alone are the means of right knowledge. The omniscience of
Brahman follows from Its being the source of the scriptures.” The
fourth Sutra is: “Tat Tu Samanvayat—That Brahman is
to be known only from the scriptures and not independently by any other
means is established, because it is the main purport of all Vedanta
texts.” The fifth Sutra is: “Ikshater Na Asabdam—On
account of ‘thinking,’ Prakriti or Pradhana not being the
first cause.” Pradhana is not based on the scriptures. The last
Sutra of the fourth chapter is: “Anavrittih Sabdat, Anavrittih
Sabdat—There is no return for the released souls, on account
of scriptural declaration to that effect.”
Brahman, Maya And Jiva
Brahman
Brahman, the Absolute, after creating the elements, enters them. It
is the Golden Person in the sun. It is the Light of the soul. It is
ever pure. It is Sat-Chit-Ananda, one without a second. It is Bhuma
(infinite, unconditioned). It dwells in the heart of man. It is the
source of everything.
Brahman is the material cause, as well as the instrumental cause, of
the universe. Brahman and the universe are not different, just as the
jar is not different from clay. Brahman develops Itself into the universe
for Its own Lila or sporting, without undergoing the least change, and
without ceasing to be Itself.
Brahman is without parts, without qualities, without action and emotion,
beginningless, endless and immutable. It has no consciousness, such
as is denoted by ‘I’ and ‘Thou’. It is the only
Reality. Brahman is to the external world what yarn is to cloth, what
earth is to jar and what gold is to a ring.
Brahman is Paramarthika Satta (Absolute Reality). The world is Vyavaharika
Satta (relative reality). The dream object is Pratibhasika Satta (apparent
reality).
Maya
Maya is the Sakti (power) of God. It is the Karana Sarira (causal body)
of God. It hides the real and makes the unreal appear as real. It is
neither Sat nor Asat nor Sat-Asat. It is Anirvachaniya (indescribable).
Maya has two powers, viz., the power of veiling or Avarana Sakti and
the power of projecting or Vikshepa Sakti. Man has forgotten his essential
divine nature on account of the veiling power of Maya. This universe
is projected owing to the Vikshepa Sakti of Maya.
Jiva
The Jiva or the individual soul is enclosed within five sheaths (Kosas),
which are like the sheaths of an onion. The five sheaths are food-sheath
(Annamaya Kosa), vital sheath (Pranamaya Kosa), mental sheath (Manomaya
Kosa), intellectual sheath (Vijnanamaya Kosa) and the bliss-sheath (Anandamaya
Kosa). The first sheath constitutes the physical body. The next three
sheaths form the subtle body. The last sheath forms the causal body.
The individual soul should transcend all its sheaths through meditation
and become one with the Supreme Soul which is beyond the five Kosas.
Then only it will attain liberation or freedom.
There are three states of consciousness for the individual soul, viz.,
the waking state, the dreaming state and the deep sleep state. Turiya
or the fourth state is the superconscious state. Turiya is Brahman.
Turiya is the silent witness of the three states. The individual should
transcend the first three states and identify himself with the Turiya
or the fourth state. Then only he can attain oneness with the Supreme
Soul.
Avidya is the causal body of Jiva or the individual soul. The Jiva
identifies itself with the body, mind and the senses on account of Avidya.
It has the erroneous notion that the body is the soul, just as one has
the wrong notion that the rope is the serpent, in twilight. The moment
the individual soul is freed from the self-imposed ignorance by a proper
understanding of the Truth through the Vedanta philosophy, Vichara (enquiry),
reflection and meditation on the Supreme Brahman, all the illusion disappears.
The identity of the Jivatman and of the entire phenomenal world with
the Supreme Soul or Brahman is re-established. The Jiva attains immortality
and eternal bliss. It merges itself in Brahman or the Ocean of Bliss.
Badarayana believes in Jivanmukti or Liberation While Living.
Celebrated Vedantic Formulae
The following are the celebrated formulae of Vedanta:—
Ekam Eva Advitiyam—The Reality is One alone without a second.
Brahma Satyam Jagan Mithya, Jivo Brahmaiva Na Aparah—Brahman
only exists truly, the world is false, the individual soul is Brahman
only and no other.
Sarvam Khalvidam Brahma—All this is, indeed, Brahman.
Satyam Jnanam Anantam Brahma—Brahman is Truth, Knowledge
and Infinity.
Brahmavid Brahmaiva Bhavati—The knower of Brahman becomes
Brahman.
Santam, Sivam, Advaitam—Brahman is Peace, Auspiciousness
and Non-duality.
Ayam Atma Santah—This Atman is Silence.
Asango Ayam Purusha—This Purusha is unattached.
Santam, Ajaram, Amritam, Abhayam, Param—This Brahman is
Peace, without old age, Immortal, fearless and Supreme.
May you all understand the truths of Vedanta philosophy. May you all
realise the bliss of oneness. May you all become Jivanmuktas while living.
CHAPTER 12
(THE SCHOOLS OF VEDANTA)
The Sutras or aphorisms of Vyasa are the basis of the Vedanta philosophy.
These Sutras have been variously explained by different commentators.
From these interpretations have arisen several schools of philosophy,
viz., Kevala Advaita philosophy of Sri Sankaracharya the philosophy
of Qualified Monism or Visishtadvaita of Sri Ramanujacharya, the Dvaita
philosophy of Sri Madhvacharya, the Bhedabheda philosophy of Sri Nimbarkacharya,
the Suddha Advaita philosophy of Sri Vallabhacharya, the Achintya Bhedabheda
philosophy of Sri Chaitanya and the Siddhanta philosophy of Sri Meykandar.
Each system of philosophy treats of three main problems, viz., God,
world and soul. The several schools of philosophy are only different
attempts at discovering the Truth.
The different Acharyas, belonging to distinctly different cults, became
founders of sects and great system-builders. The followers of these
schools sought to prove their orthodoxy by interpreting the Vedanta
Sutras in accordance with their own tenets, showing their claim to be
based on, and regularly evolved from, ancient tradition.
Sruti—The Common Basis Of All Schools
The Vedanta schools base their doctrines on the Upanishads. The Upanishads,
the Vedanta Sutras and the Bhagavad-Gita are regarded as the authoritative
scriptures. They are called Prasthana-Traya Granthas. Different commentators
of the Vedanta Sutras have formed different views on the true nature
of Brahman, but they all base their theories on the supreme authority
of the Sruti. To reject any one of these views is to reject the Sruti
itself.
The Three Main Schools Of Metaphysical Thought
Dvaita, Visishtadvaita and Advaita
Sri Sankara, Sri Ramanuja and Sri Madhva are the most illustrious commentators
on the Vedanta Sutras. These commentators have tried to establish theories
of their own, such as Advaita-Vada (unqualified non-dualism or uncompromising
or rigorous monism), Visishtadvaita-Vada (differentiated or qualified
monism) and Dvaita-Vada (strict or rigorous dualism). Sankaracharya
had in view, while preparing his commentary, chiefly the purpose of
combating the baneful effects which blind ritualism had brought to bear
upon Hinduism.
Dualism (Dvaita), Qualified Monism (Visishtadvaita) and Monism (Advaita)
are the three main schools of metaphysical thought. They are all stages
on the way to the Ultimate Truth, viz., Para-Brahman. They are rungs
on the ladder of Yoga. They are not at all contradictory. On the contrary,
they are complimentary to one another. These stages are harmoniously
arranged in a graded series of spiritual experiences. Dualism, Qualified
Monism, Pure Monism—all these culminate eventually in the Advaita
Vedantic realisation of the Absolute or the transcendental Trigunatita
Ananta Brahman.
Madhva said: “Man is the servant of God,” and established
his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: “Man is a ray or spark of
God,” and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said:
“Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul,” and established
his Kevala Advaita philosophy.
A Dvaitin wants to serve the Lord as a servant. He wishes to play with
the Lord. He wishes to taste the sugar-candy. A Visishtadvaitin wants
to become like Lord Narayana and enjoy the divine. He does not wish
to merge himself or become identical with the Lord. He wishes to remain
as a spark. A Jnani merges himself in Brahman. He wishes to become identical
with Brahman. He wants to become the sugar-candy itself.
People have different temperaments and different capacities. So, different
schools of philosophy are also necessary. The highest rung is Advaita
philosophy. A dualist or qualified monist eventually becomes a Kevala
Advaitin.
Different Conceptions Of Brahman Only Different Approaches
To The Reality
Nimbarkacharya reconciles all the different views regarding the Lord
taken up by Sankara, Ramanuja, Madhva and others, and proves that their
views are all true with reference to the particular aspect of Brahman
dealt with by them, each in his own way. Sankara has taken Reality in
Its transcendental aspect, while Ramanuja has taken It in Its immanent
aspect, principally; but, Nimbarka has adjusted different views taken
by the different commentators.
Sri Sankaracharya, Sri Ramanujacharya, Sri Madhvacharya, Sri Vallabhacharya
and Sri Nimbarkacharya—all were great souls. We cannot say
that Sri Sankara was greater than Sri Ramanuja, or Sri Vallabha was
greater than Nimbarka, etc. All were Avatara Purushas. Each one incarnated
himself on this earth to complete a definite mission, to preach and
propagate certain doctrines which were necessary to help the growth
of a certain type of people, who flourished at a certain period, who
were in a certain stage of evolution. All schools of philosophy are
necessary. Each philosophy is best suited to a certain type of people.
The different conceptions of Brahman are but different approaches to
the Reality. It is extremely difficult, rather impossible, for the finite
soul to get—all at once—a clear conception of the Illimitable
or Infinite Soul, and more so, to express it in adequate terms. All
cannot grasp the highest Kevala Advaita philosophy of Sri Sankara all
at once. The mind has to be disciplined properly before it is rendered
as a fit instrument to grasp the tenets of Sri Sankara’s Advaita
Vedanta.
Salutations and adorations to all Acharyas! Glory to the Acharyas!
May their blessings be upon us all.
Introduction
The first systematic exponent of the Advaita is Gaudapada, who is the
Parama-Guru (preceptor’s preceptor) of Sri Sankara. Govinda was
the disciple of Gaudapada. He became the preceptor of Sankara. Gaudapada
has given the central teaching of Advaita Vedanta in his celebrated
Mandukya Karikas. But it was Sankara who brought forth the final beautiful
form of Advaita philosophy, and gave perfection and finishing touch
to it. Carefully go through Sri Sankara’s commentaries on the principal
Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad-Gita. You will clearly
understand his Advaita philosophy. The commentary on the Vedanta Sutras
by Sankara is known as Sariraka Bhashya.
The teachings of Sankara can be summed up in half a verse: “Brahma
Satyam Jagan Mithya Jivo Brahmaiva Na Aparah—Brahman (the Absolute)
is alone real; this world is unreal; and the Jiva or the individual
soul is non-different from Brahman.” This is the quintessence of
his philosophy.
The Advaita taught by Sri Sankara is a rigorous, absolute one. According
to Sri Sankara, whatever is, is Brahman. Brahman Itself is absolutely
homogeneous. All difference and plurality are illusory.
Brahman—The One Without A Second
The Atman is self-evident (Svatah-siddha). It is not established by
extraneous proofs. It is not possible to deny the Atman, because It
is the very essence of the one who denies It. The Atman is the basis
of all kinds of knowledge, presuppositions and proofs. Self is within,
Self is without; Self is before, Self is behind; Self is on the right,
Self is on the left; Self is above and Self is below.
Brahman is not an object, as It is Adrisya, beyond the reach of the
eyes. Hence the Upanishads declare: “Neti Neti—not
this, not this, not that.” This does not mean that Brahman is a
negative concept, or a metaphysical abstraction, or a nonentity, or
a void. It is not another. It is all-full, infinite, changeless, self-existent,
self-delight, self-knowledge and self-bliss. It is Svarupa, essence.
It is the essence of the knower. It is the Seer (Drashta), Transcendent
(Turiya) and Silent Witness (Sakshi).
Sankara’s Supreme Brahman is impersonal, Nirguna (without Gunas
or attributes), Nirakara (formless), Nirvisesha (without special characteristics),
immutable, eternal and Akarta (non-agent). It is above all needs and
desires. It is always the Witnessing Subject. It can never become an
object as It is beyond the reach of the senses. Brahman is non-dual,
one without a second. It has no other beside It. It is destitute of
difference, either external or internal. Brahman cannot be described,
because description implies distinction. Brahman cannot be distinguished
from any other than It. In Brahman, there is not the distinction of
substance and attribute. Sat-Chit-Ananda constitute the very essence
or Svarupa of Brahman, and not just Its attributes.
The Nirguna Brahman of Sankara is impersonal. It becomes a personal
God or Saguna Brahman only through Its association with Maya.
Saguna Brahman and Nirguna Brahman are not two different Brahmans.
Nirguna Brahman is not the contrast, antithesis or opposite of Saguna
Brahman. The same Nirguna Brahman appears as Saguna Brahman for the
pious worship of devotees. It is the same Truth from two different points
of view. Nirguna Brahman is the higher Brahman, the Brahman from the
transcendental viewpoint (Paramarthika); Saguna Brahman is the lower
Brahman, the Brahman from the relative viewpoint (Vyavaharika).
The World—A Relative Reality
The world is not an illusion according to Sankara. The world is relatively
real (Vyavaharika Satta), while Brahman is absolutely real (Paramarthika
Satta). The world is the product of Maya or Avidya. The unchanging Brahman
appears as the changing world through Maya. Maya is a mysterious indescribable
power of the Lord which hides the real and manifests itself as the unreal:
Maya is not real, because it vanishes when you attain knowledge of the
Eternal. It is not unreal also, because it exists till knowledge dawns
in you. The superimposition of the world on Brahman is due to Avidya
or ignorance.
Nature Of The Jiva And The Means To Moksha
To Sankara, the Jiva or the individual soul is only relatively real.
Its individuality lasts only so long as it is subject to unreal Upadhis
or limiting conditions due to Avidya. The Jiva identifies itself with
the body, mind and the senses, when it is deluded by Avidya or ignorance.
It thinks, it acts and enjoys, on account of Avidya. In reality it is
not different from Brahman or the Absolute. The Upanishads declare emphatically:
“Tat Tvam Asi—That Thou Art.” Just as the bubble
becomes one with the ocean when it bursts, just as the pot-ether becomes
one with the universal ether when the pot is broken, so also the Jiva
or the empirical self becomes one with Brahman when it gets knowledge
of Brahman. When knowledge dawns in it through annihilation of Avidya,
it is freed from its individuality and finitude and realises its essential
Satchidananda nature. It merges itself in the ocean of bliss. The river
of life joins the ocean of existence. This is the Truth.
The release from Samsara means, according to Sankara, the absolute
merging of the individual soul in Brahman due to dismissal of the erroneous
notion that the soul is distinct from Brahman. According to Sankara,
Karma and Bhakti are means to Jnana which is Moksha.
Vivarta Vada Or The Theory Of Superimposition
To Sankara the world is only relatively real (Vyavaharika Satta). He
advocated Vivarta-Vada or the theory of appearance or superimposition
(Adhyasa). Just as snake is superimposed on the rope in twilight, this
world and body are superimposed on Brahman or the Supreme Self. If you
get knowledge of the rope, the illusion of snake in the rope will vanish.
Even so, if you get knowledge of Brahman or the Imperishable, the illusion
of body and world will disappear. In Vivarta-Vada, the cause produces
the effect without undergoing any change in itself. Snake is only an
appearance on the rope. The rope has not transformed itself into a snake,
like milk into curd. Brahman is immutable and eternal. Therefore, It
cannot change Itself into the world. Brahman becomes the cause of the
world through Maya, which is Its inscrutable mysterious power or Sakti.
When you come to know that it is only a rope, your fear disappears.
You do not run away from it. Even so, when you realise the eternal immutable
Brahman, you are not affected by the phenomena or the names and forms
of this world. When Avidya or the veil of ignorance is destroyed through
knowledge of the Eternal, when Mithya Jnana or false knowledge is removed
by real knowledge of the Imperishable or the living Reality, you shine
in your true, pristine, divine splendour and glory.
The Advaita—A Philosophy Without A Parallel
The Advaita philosophy of Sri Sankaracharya is lofty, sublime and unique.
It is a system of bold philosophy and logical subtlety. It is highly
interesting, inspiring and elevating. No other philosophy can stand
before it in boldness, depth and subtle thinking. Sankara’s philosophy
is complete and perfect.
Sri Sankara was a mighty, marvellous genius. He was a master of logic.
He was a profound thinker of the first rank. He was a sage of the highest
realisation. He was an Avatara of Lord Siva. His philosophy has brought
solace, peace and illumination to countless persons in the East and
the West. The Western thinkers bow their heads at the lotus-feet of
Sri Sankara. His philosophy has soothed the sorrows and afflictions
of the most forlorn persons, and brought hope, joy, wisdom, perfection,
freedom and calmness to many. His system of philosophy commands the
admiration of the whole world.
Introduction
The Visishtadvaita is so called because it inculcates the Advaita or
oneness of God, with Visesha or attributes. It is, therefore, qualified
monism. God alone exists. All else that is seen are His manifestations
or attributes. God or Lord Narayana of Sri Ramanuja is a complex organic
whole—Visishta—though it is one. Hence the name Visishtadvaita.
According to Sri Sankara, all qualities or manifestations are unreal
and temporary. They are a result of Avidya or ignorance. According to
Sri Ramanuja, the attributes are real and permanent. But, they are subject
to the control of the one Brahman. God can be one despite the existence
of attributes, because they cannot exist alone; they are not independent
entities. They are Prakaras or the modes, Sesha or the accessories,
and Niyama or the controlled aspects, of the one Brahman.
